The Consciousness Theories Studies (ConTraSt) database: analyzing and comparing empirical studies of consciousness theories
Open accessAbstract
Understanding how consciousness arises from neural activity remains one of the biggest challenges for neuroscience. Numerous theories have been proposed in recent years, each gaining independent empirical support. Currently, there is no comprehensive, quantitative and theory-neutral overview of the field that enables an evaluation of how theoretical frameworks interact with empirical research. We provide a bird’s eye view on studies that interpreted their findings in light of at least one of four leading neuroscientific theories of consciousness (N=412 experiments), asking how methodological choices of the researchers might affect the final conclusions. We found that supporting a specific theory can be predicted solely from methodological choices, irrespective of findings. Furthermore, most studies interpret their findings post-hoc, rather than a-priori testing critical predictions of the theories. Our results highlight challenges for the field and provide researchers with a unique, open-access website to further analyze trends in the neuroscience of consciousness.
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Empirical research has focused on testing theories separately, rather than on directly contrasting them to evaluate their explanatory and predictive power.
“Empirical research has focused on testing theories separately, rather than on directly contrasting them to evaluate their explanatory and predictive power [8].”
From An adversarial collaboration protocol for testing contrasting predictions of global neuronal workspace and integrated information theory (2023) · cites this paper as [8]
The Discussion reports that only 7% of the 412 experiments directly compared predictions from two or more theories, supporting the claim that direct contrasts are rare. But the Division of experiments with respect to the theories says only 35% explicitly tested theory predictions; many instead interpreted findings post hoc or merely mentioned a theory. Thus, saying research has focused on testing theories separately overstates how much of it tested theories at all. (LLM, conf=0.86)
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Melloni, L., Ferrante, O., Górska, U., Henin, S. E., Hirschhorn, R., Khalaf, A. F., Lepauvre, A., Liu, L., Richter, D., Vidal, Y., et al. (2023) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-3101836/v1 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Self-citationKrasich, K., Simmons, C., O’Neill, K. J., Giattino, C., Brigard, F. D., Sinnott-Armstrong, W. P., Mudrik, L., & Woldorff, M. G. (2022) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-022-25720-2 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Self-citationKirkeby-Hinrup, A., & Fazekas, P. (2021) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2021.103173 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Perceptual Awareness and Its Relationship with Consciousness: Hints from Perceptual Multistability
Saracini, C. (2022) · NeuroSci · doi:10.3390/neurosci3040039 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Grand Challenges in Consciousness Research Across Perception, Cognition, Self, and Emotion
Raffone, A. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.770360 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Rosseinsky, N. M. (2024) · Synthese Library/Synthese library · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-57353-8_18 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Three Comments in Case of a Structural Turn in Consciousness SciencePreprint
Kleiner, J. (2023) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.31234/osf.io/qmyv5
Lepauvre, A. (2025) · Radboud University Press eBooks · doi:10.54195/9789465150550
An open-access multi-site fMRI dataset for investigating conscious visual perception
Khalaf, A. F., Richter, D., Vidal, Y., Górska, U., Hirschhorn, R., Das, D., Kahraman, K. S. T., Sripad, P., Taheriyan, F., Mudrik, L., et al. (2026) · Scientific Data · doi:10.1038/s41597-026-07377-y
Self-citation
- Authors
- Yaron, I., Melloni, L., Pitts, M., & Mudrik, L.
- Affiliations
- Tel Aviv University (IL)
- Reed College (US)
- Corresponding author
- Yaron, Itay
- Venue
- bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory)
- Publisher
- openRxiv
- Published
- 2021-06-10
- OpenAlex
- W3169141660
- Cited by
- 21
- References
- 98
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 2 · 2024: 3 · 2023: 7 · 2022: 4 · 2021: 4
- Type
- posted content
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- doi.org
- Licence
- cc-by-nc-nd
- Locations
- bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) (acceptedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation (1829470)
- Templeton World Charity Foundation (TWCF0378, TWCF0599)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Philosophy and Theoretical Science
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Free Will and Agency
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural dynamics and brain function
- Keywords
- theory of consciousness, neuroscience of consciousness, methodological choices, post-hoc explanation
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