Memory Consolidation

Squire, Larry R.; Genzel, Lisa; Wixted, John T.; Morris, Richard G.

doi:10.1101/cshperspect.a021766

Cited by 705Memory and Neural MechanismsMemory Processes and InfluencesSleep and Wakefulness Research

Memory Consolidation

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Squire, Larry R., Genzel, Lisa, Wixted, John T., Morris, Richard G.·2015·Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology

DOI 10.1101/cshperspect.a021766PMC PMC4526749

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Abstract

Conscious memory for a new experience is initially dependent on information stored in both the hippocampus and neocortex. Systems consolidation is the process by which the hippocampus guides the reorganization of the information stored in the neocortex such that it eventually becomes independent of the hippocampus. Early evidence for systems consolidation was provided by studies of retrograde amnesia, which found that damage to the hippocampus-impaired memories formed in the recent past, but typically spared memories formed in the more remote past. Systems consolidation has been found to occur for both episodic and semantic memories and for both spatial and nonspatial memories, although empirical inconsistencies and theoretical disagreements remain about these issues. Recent work has begun to characterize the neural mechanisms that underlie the dialogue between the hippocampus and neocortex (e.g., "neural replay," which occurs during sharp wave ripple activity). New work has also identified variables, such as the amount of preexisting knowledge, that affect the rate of consolidation. The increasing use of molecular genetic tools (e.g., optogenetics) can be expected to further improve understanding of the neural mechanisms underlying consolidation.

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Humans gradually summarize common structure from past episodes and organize it into abstractions through memory consolidation.
“Humans do not treat every new situation as entirely unfamiliar; instead, they gradually summarize common structure from past episodes and organize it into abstractions through memory consolidation (McClelland et al., 1995; Squire et al., 2015; Dudai et al., 2015; Moscovitch et al., 2016; Sun et al., 2023; Bartlett, 1932).”
From Useful Memories Become Faulty When Continuously Updated by LLMs (2026) · cites this paper as Squire et al., 2015
The Conclusions (page unavailable) describe gradual reorganization of memory and its relationship to existing schemas. But Interpreting Behavioral Measures and Cognitive Factors (page unavailable) says that extracting gist from learned instances is a proposed interpretation of animal data and that an extraction mechanism may not be required. The paper therefore supports gradual consolidation and a possible route to abstraction, but not the claim that humans necessarily summarize past episodes into abstractions through that process. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Cognitive theories of memory describe two complementary processes: a fast episodic system that stores individual experiences, and a slow process that extracts compact schemas-abstractions over many episodes that integrate with prior knowledge to support future generalization.
“Cognitive theories of memory describe two complementary processes: a fast episodic system that stores individual experiences, and a slow process that extracts compact schemas -abstractions over many episodes that integrate with prior knowledge to support future generalization (McClelland et al., 1995; Squire et al., 2015; Dudai et al., 2015; Moscovitch et al., 2016).”
From Useful Memories Become Faulty When Continuously Updated by LLMs (2026) · cites this paper as Squire et al., 2015
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Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Human memory relies on complementary learning systems.
“Human memory relies on complementary learning systems (McClelland et al., 1995), where memory consolidation (Squire et al., 2015) progressively transforms rapid episodic encoding into more stable semantic structures (Cowan et al., 2021).”
From TiMem: Temporal-Hierarchical Memory Consolidation for Long-Horizon Conversational Agents (2026) · cites this paper as Squire et al., 2015
Memory consolidation progressively transforms rapid episodic encoding into more stable semantic structures.
“Human memory relies on complementary learning systems (McClelland et al., 1995), where memory consolidation (Squire et al., 2015) progressively transforms rapid episodic encoding into more stable semantic structures (Cowan et al., 2021).”
From TiMem: Temporal-Hierarchical Memory Consolidation for Long-Horizon Conversational Agents (2026) · cites this paper as Squire et al., 2015

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Retrograde amnesia after hippocampal damage: Recent vs. remote memories in two tasks
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The Neuroanatomy of Remote Memory
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Retrograde amnesia: neither partial nor complete hippocampal lesions in rats result in preferential sparing of remote spatial memory, even after reminding
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Memory and Consciousness
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Reversible hippocampal lesions disrupt water maze performance during both recent and remote memory testsPreprint
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Absence of systems consolidation of fear memories after dorsal, ventral, or complete hippocampal damage
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Misattribution, false recognition and the sins of memory
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The hippocampal region is involved in successful recognition of both remote and recent famous faces
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Learning-Induced Plasticity Regulates Hippocampal Sharp Wave-Ripple Drive
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Representations of recent and remote autobiographical memories in hippocampal subfields
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Involvement of hippocampal NMDA and AMPA receptors in acquisition, formation and retrieval of spatial memory in the Morris water maze.
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Field Potential Signature of Distinct Multicellular Activity Patterns in the Mouse Hippocampus
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Authors: Squire, L. R., Genzel, L., Wixted, J. T., & Morris, R. G.
Affiliations: University of California San Diego (US)
University of Edinburgh (GB)
ORCID: Squire, Larry R.
Genzel, Lisa
Wixted, John T.
Morris, Richard G.
Venue: Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology
Publisher: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory
Published: 2015-08
Volume: 7
Issue: 8
Pages: a021766
ISSN: 1943-0264 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1101/cshperspect.a021766
PMC: PMC4526749
OpenAlex: W4247532959
Cited by: 700
References: 148
Citations by year: 2026: 70 · 2025: 97 · 2024: 100 · 2023: 78 · 2022: 83 · 2021: 83 · 2020: 68 · 2019: 45 · 2018: 26 · 2017: 27 · 2016: 14 · 2015: 6 · 2014: 1
Type: posted content
Language: en
Open access: bronze
doi.org
Locations: Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology (publishedVersion)
Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion)
PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs
U.S. Public Health Service (24600)
National Institute of Mental Health (24600, Grant 24600)
Topics: Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory and Neural Mechanisms
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Sleep and Wakefulness Research
Keywords: memory consolidation, systems consolidation, hippocampus, neocortex, retrograde amnesia, episodic memory, semantic memory, spatial memory, neural replay, sharp-wave ripples, optogenetics
MeSH terms: Animals, Hippocampus, Humans, Memory, Neocortex

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