Emotional memories are not all created equal: evidence for selective memory enhancement.

Anderson, Adam K.; Yamaguchi, Yuki; Grabski, Wojtek; Lacka, Dominika

doi:10.1101/lm.388906

PreprintCited by 141Memory Processes and InfluencesMemory and Neural MechanismsFace Recognition and Perception

Emotional memories are not all created equal: evidence for selective memory enhancement.

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Anderson, Adam K., Yamaguchi, Yuki, Grabski, Wojtek, Lacka, Dominika·2006·Learning & Memory

DOI 10.1101/lm.388906PMC PMC1783624

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Abstract

Human brain imaging studies have shown that greater amygdala activation to emotional relative to neutral events leads to enhanced episodic memory. Other studies have shown that fearful faces also elicit greater amygdala activation relative to neutral faces. To the extent that amygdala recruitment is sufficient to enhance recollection, these separate lines of evidence predict that recognition memory should be greater for fearful relative to neutral faces. Experiment 1 demonstrated enhanced memory for emotionally negative relative to neutral scenes; however, fearful faces were not subject to enhanced recognition across a variety of delays (15 min to 2 wk). Experiment 2 demonstrated that enhanced delayed recognition for emotional scenes was associated with increased sympathetic autonomic arousal, indexed by the galvanic skin response, relative to fearful faces. These results suggest that while amygdala activation may be necessary, it alone is insufficient to enhance episodic memory formation. It is proposed that a sufficient level of systemic arousal is required to alter memory consolidation resulting in enhanced recollection of emotional events.

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Subliminally seeing emotional facial expressions is not equivalent to inducing the corresponding full emotion.
“Of course, subliminally seeing emotional facial expressions is not equivalent to inducing the corresponding full emotion (Adolphs et al., 2005; Anderson et al., 2006).”
From Evolving Concepts of Emotion and Motivation (2018) · cites this paper as Anderson et al., 2006

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“However, it has long been known that the impact of emotion on cognition is highly selective and does not benefit all aspects of episodic memory (Anderson et al., 2006; Rimmele et al., 2011; Bisby and Burgess, 2013; Steinmetz and Kensinger, 2013; Madan et al., 2017).”
Background
The effects of valence and arousal on the neural activity leading to subsequent memory
Mickley Steinmetz, K. R., & Kensinger, E. A. (2009) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.2009.00868.x · Cited by 106 · see citing works
“Activity in the amygdala and hippocampus did relate disproportionately to later memory for emotional compared to neutral information, and activity in the amygdala was particularly related to subsequent memory for arousing information (see also Anderson et al., 2006; Kensinger & Corkin, 2004).”
Emotional arousal modulates oscillatory correlates of targeted memory reactivation during NREM, but not REM sleep
Lehmann, M., Schreiner, T., Seifritz, E., & Rasch, B. (2016) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/srep39229 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Evidence for the preferential incorporation of emotional waking-life experiences into dreams.
Malinowski, J., & Horton, C. L. (2014) · Dreaming · doi:10.1037/a0036017 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
“Support for this idea comes from emotional memory research, which has shown that emotional stimuli are better recalled than neutral ones (Anderson et al., 2006; Atienza & Cantero, 2008), and that emotions facilitate recall even more than the purposeful effort to recall (Heuer & Reisberg, 1990).”
Background
Emotional Memory in Schizophrenia
Herbener, E. S. (2008) · Schizophrenia Bulletin · doi:10.1093/schbul/sbn081 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Sex differences in emotional memory consolidation: The effect of stress-induced salivary alpha-amylase and cortisol
Felmingham, K. L., Tran, T. P., Fong, W. C., & Bryant, R. A. (2012) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2011.12.006 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
“Empirical support for the memory modulation hypothesis arises from findings that emotional memories are recalled better than neutral memories (Anderson et al., 2006; McGaugh, 2004).”
Amygdala activity and amygdala-hippocampus connectivity: Metabolic diseases, dementia, and neuropsychiatric issues
Song, J. (2023) · Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy · doi:10.1016/j.biopha.2023.114647 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Amygdala activity at encoding corresponds with memory vividness and with memory for select episodic details
Kensinger, E. A., Addis, D. R., & Atapattu, R. K. (2011) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2011.01.017 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Emotional memories are resilient to time: Evidence from the parietal ERP old/new effect
Weymar, M., Löw, A., & Hamm, A. O. (2010) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.21051 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
“In most of these studies, memory performance was assessed either immediately after the encoding period or after a retention interval of weeks or several months [Anderson et al., 2006; Ochsner, 2000; Ritchey et al., 2008; Sterpenich et al., 2009; Weymar et al., 2009].”
Background
Remembering specific features of emotional events across time: the role of REM sleep and prefrontal theta oscillations
Sopp, M. R., Michael, T., Weeß, H.-G., & Mecklinger, A. (2017) · Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3758/s13415-017-0542-8 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Emotional words impact the mind but not the body: evidence from pupillary responses.
Bayer, M., Sommer, W., & Schacht, A. (2011) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.2011.01219.x · Cited by 67 · see citing works
‘Memories are made of this’: some reflections on outdoor learning and recall
Waite, S. (2007) · Education 3-13 · doi:10.1080/03004270701602459 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
“( 2006 ) suggest that systemic arousal may also be necessary.”
Background
Orienting, emotion, and memory: Phasic and tonic variation in heart rate predicts memory for emotional pictures in men
Abercrombie, H. C., Chambers, A. S., Greischar, L. L., & Monticelli, R. M. (2008) · Neurobiology of Learning and Memory · doi:10.1016/j.nlm.2008.08.001 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Event-Related Nociceptive Arousal Enhances Memory Consolidation for Neutral Scenes
Schwarze, U., Bingel, U., & Sommer, T. (2012) · The Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.4497-11.2012 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
“Also, autonomic measures are typically correlated with successful memory formation for emotionally arousing stimuli (Anderson et al., 2006; Buchanan et al., 2006; Abercrombie et al., 2008).”
Background
Cognition, Emotion and Action in Sport
Araújo, D., Davids, K., & Renshaw, I. (2020) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781119568124.ch25 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Respiration phase‐locks to fast stimulus presentations: Implications for the interpretation of posterior midline “deactivations”
Huijbers, W., Pennartz, C. M. A., Beldzik, E., Domagalik, A., Vinck, M. A., Hofman, W. F., Cabeza, R. E. L., & Daselaar, S. M. (2014) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.22523 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
“the galvanic skin response, which presumably reflects greater arousal levels that support memory formation and retrieval [Anderson et al., 2006].”
Emotion Causes Targeted Forgetting of Established Memories
Strange, B. A., Kroes, M. C. W., Fan, J. E., & Dolan, R. J. (2010) · Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2010.00175 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
The Effect of Emotional Valence and Arousal on Visuo-Spatial Working Memory: Incidental Emotional Learning and Memory for Object-Location
Costanzi, M., Cianfanelli, B., Saraulli, D., Lasaponara, S., Doricchi, F., Cestari, V., & Rossi‐Arnaud, C. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02587 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
The effect of EMDR versus EMDR 2.0 on emotionality and vividness of aversive memories in a non-clinical sample
Matthijssen, S. J. M. A., Brouwers, T. C., van Roozendaal, C., Vuister, T., & de Jongh, A. (2021) · European Journal of Psychotraumatology · doi:10.1080/20008198.2021.1956793 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Attentional biases and memory for emotional stimuli in men and male rhesus monkeys
Agnès Lacreuse, A., Schatz, K. C., Strazzullo, S., King, H. M., & Ready, R. E. (2013) · Animal Cognition · doi:10.1007/s10071-013-0618-y · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Six degrees of separation: the amygdala regulates social behavior and perception
Todd, R. M., & Anderson, A. K. (2009) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nn1009-1217 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Immediate emotion-enhanced memory dependent on arousal and valence: the role of automatic and controlled processing.
Kang, C., Wang, Z., Surina, A., & Lu, W. (2014) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2014.05.008 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
“The two experiments clearly show that the immediate EEM dependent on arousal and valence was observed in the FA condition, which was in line with previous studies (Anderson et al., 2006; Canli, Zhao, Brewer, Gabrieli, & Cahill, 2000; Canli et al., 2002; Kensinger & Corkin, 2003; Kensinger & Schacter, 2007, 2008; Kensi…”
BackgroundResultInfluential
Negative emotion does not enhance recall skills in adults with autistic spectrum disorders
Deruelle, C., Hubert, B., Santos, A., & Wicker, B. (2008) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.13 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
“This finding is consistent with that of previous studies showing a facilitating effect of negatively laden stimuli on memory performances [Anderson et al., 2006; Kensinger & Corkin, 2003; Medford et al., 2005].”
Result
Problem Solving as an Encoding Task: A Special Case of the Generation Effect
Kizilirmak, J. M., Wiegmann, B., & Richardson‐Klavehn, A. (2016) · The Journal of Problem Solving · doi:10.7771/1932-6246.1182 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
How is physiological arousal related to self-reported measures of emotional intensity and valence of events and their autobiographical memories?
Salgado, S., & Kingo, O. S. (2019) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2019.102811 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Neurophysiological correlates of emotional directed-forgetting in persons with Schizophrenia: An event-related brain potential study
Patrick, R. E., Michael Kiang, A., & Christensen, B. K. (2015) · International Journal of Psychophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2015.01.006 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
“Emotional stimuli are preferentially encoded and retained inmemory (Anderson et al., 2006; Kensinger and Corkin, 2003).”
Background
Impairment of contextual conditioned fear extinction after microinjection of alpha-1-adrenergic blocker prazosin into the medial prefrontal cortex
Monte, F. H. D., Allensworth, M. L., & Carobrez, A. P. (2010) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2010.03.014 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
A Diffusion Model Analysis of Decision Biases Affecting Delayed Recognition of Emotional Stimuli
Bowen, H. J., Spaniol, J., Patel, R. R., & Voss, A. (2016) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0146769 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
“At first glance, these findings appear to be at odds with prior reports of emotional enhancement of memory at extended delays of 1 week [35,41] or longer [32,34].”
Background
Shared Neural Substrates of Emotionally Enhanced Perceptual and Mnemonic Vividness
Todd, R. M., Schmitz, T. W., Susskind, J., & Anderson, A. K. (2013) · Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2013.00040 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
On the roles of distinctiveness and semantic expectancies in episodic encoding of emotional words
Kamp, S., Potts, G. F., & Donchin, E. (2015) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/psyp.12537 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Stress Effects on Multiple Memory System Interactions
Ness, D., & Calabrese, P. (2015) · Neural Plasticity · doi:10.1155/2016/4932128 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“Additionally, based on the methods applied in the herein discussed studies, we will discuss how memory translates into behaviour.”
Method
Phantom Acupuncture: Dissociating Somatosensory and Cognitive/Affective Components of Acupuncture Stimulation with a Novel Form of Placebo Acupuncture
Lee, J., Napadow, V., Kim, J., Lee, S.-G., Choi, W., Kaptchuk, T. J., & Park, K. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0104582 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
“For example, heart rate changes have been associated with clinical improvements for PTSD [13] and chronic pain [14], and have been linked with memory recall [15], somatosensory processing [16] and emotional memory processing [17].”
Background
Impairment in Long-Term Retention of Preference Conditioning in Schizophrenia
Herbener, E. S. (2009) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2009.01.020 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Emotion and Memory
Kensinger, E., & Kark, S. M. (2018) · doi:10.1002/9781119170174.epcn101
Beta-adrenergic Blockade at Memory Encoding, but Not Retrieval, Decreases the Subjective Sense of Recollection
Rimmele, U., Lackovic, S. F., Tobe, R. H., Leventhal, B., & Phelps, E. (2016) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn_a_00941 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Physiological and self-reported arousal in virtual reality versus face-to-face emotional activation and cognitive restructuring in university students: A crossover experimental study using wearable monitoring
Bolinski, F., Etzelmüller, A., De Witte, N. A. J., van Beurden, C., Debard, G., Bonroy, B., Cuijpers, P., Riper, H., & Kleiboer, A. (2021) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2021.103877 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Event-related potential signatures of perceived and imagined emotional and food real-life photos
Marmolejo‐Ramos, F., Hellemans, K. G. C., Comeau, A., Heenan, A., Faulkner, A., Abizaid, A. B., & D’Angiulli, A. (2015) · Neuroscience Bulletin · doi:10.1007/s12264-014-1520-6 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“Accordingly, vividness may be best understood as an overarching binding feature deriving from higher-order top-down processes such as metacognition([76]) or episodic memory([77]) that are conjointly modulated by visual pathways and inputs from the arousal and limbic systems([78-80]).”
Background
Multifunctional Polymer Memory via Bi‐Interfacial Topography for Pressure Perception Recognition
Wang, X., Zhou, Z., Ban, C., Zhang, Z., Ju, S. G., Huang, X. B., Mao, H., Chang, Q. H., Yin, Y., Song, M., et al. (2020) · Advanced Science · doi:10.1002/advs.201902864 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Not All Memories Created Equal: Dynamic User Representations for Collaborative Filtering
Gaiger, K., Barkan, O., Tsipory-Samuel, S., & Koenigstein, N. (2023) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2023.3263931 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“more accessible in different contexts [2], [3], [4], [5].”
Background
Progesterone and mental imagery interactively predict emotional memories
Wassell, J., Rogers, S., Felmingam, K. L., Pearson, J., & Bryant, R. A. (2014) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2014.09.005 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“It is widely acknowledged that emotional arousal has an enhancing effect on lasting, declarative memory (Cahill and McGaugh, 1995, 1998; Anderson et al., 2006).”
Background
Sex-hormone status and emotional processing in healthy women
Gamsakhurdashvili, D., Antov, M. I., & Stockhorst, U. (2021) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2021.105258 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Emotional enhancement of immediate memory: Positive pictorial stimuli are better recognized than neutral or negative pictorial stimuli
Chainay, H., Michael, G., Vert-pré, M., Landré, L., & Plasson, A. (2012) · Advances in Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.5709/acp-0121-1 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Emotional memory modulation in schizophrenia: an overview
Dieleman, S., & Röder, C. H. (2012) · Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica · doi:10.1111/acps.12047 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Sleep selectively stabilizes contextual aspects of negative memories
Cox, R., van Bronkhorst, M. L. V., Bayda, M., Gomillion, H., Cho, E., Parr, E., Manickas-Hill, O. P., Schapiro, A. C., & Stickgold, R. (2018) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-018-35999-9 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Sex-Related Memory Recall and Talkativeness for Emotional Stimuli
Arnone, B., Pompili, A., Tavares, M. C. H., & Gasbarri, A. (2011) · Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2011.00052 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“The biological explanation for gender differences in language use hypothesizes that sex-related differences have resulted from evolutionary pressures for men to be more aggressive and self-assertive, and for women to be more nurturing and affiliative (Lippa, 2005; Luxen, 2005; Pellegrini and Archer, 2005; Anderson et…”
From active play to sedentary lifestyles: understanding the decline in physical activity from childhood through adolescence—a systematic review
Habyarimana, J. D. D., Tugirumukiza, E., Sun, H., Pathirana, A., & Zhou, K. (2025) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2025.1636891 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Prime time news: The influence of primed positive and negative emotion on susceptibility to false memories
Porter, S., ten Brinke, L., Riley, S. N., & Baker, A. (2014) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2014.887000 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“Given the importance of emotion on the activation of neural correlates and perceptual biases during encoding (Anderson et al., 2006), we anticipated that priming at recall would not produce the same effect, as the memory would already have been established, but that the elaborative processing involved in reinterpretat…”
Background
Effect of emotional and neutral declarative memory consolidation on sleep architecture
Ward, M., Peters, K. R., & Smith, C. T. (2013) · Experimental Brain Research · doi:10.1007/s00221-013-3781-0 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Investigation of the influence of emotions on working memory capacity using ERP and ERSP
Zhang, Y., Zhang, G., & Liu, B. (2017) · Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2017.06.016 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
The influence of indirect and direct emotional processing on memory for facial expressions
Patel, R., Girard, T. A., & Green, R. (2012) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2011.642848 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“As in previous studies (e.g., Anderson et al., 2006), an independent group of 16 participants provided arousal ratings for all of the face stimuli.”
Result
Reduced directed forgetting for negative words suggests schizophrenia-related disinhibition of emotional cues
Patrick, R., & Christensen, B. (2013) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291713000445 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“Similarly, emotionally evocative material is often conferred an automatic memory advantage in an effect termed the emotional enhancement of memory (e.g. Kensinger & Corkin, 2003, 2004; Anderson et al. 2006; Sommer et al. 2008).”
Background
The Impact of Aging and Alzheimer's Disease on Emotional Enhancement of Memory
Baran, Z., Baran, Z., Cangöz, B., & Ozel-Kizil, E. T. (2014) · European Neurology · doi:10.1159/000359924 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
The neurogenetics of remembering emotions past
Todd, R., & Anderson, A. (2009) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America · doi:10.1073/pnas.0910755106 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“By contrast, the amygdala is associated with relatively reflexive arousal influences during encoding (7) and emotional memory formation is associated with peripheral sympathetic activation (8).”
Background
Emotional memory in pregnant women at risk for postpartum depression
Williams, M. E., Becker, S., McKinnon, M. C., Wong, Q. Y., Cudney, L. E., Steiner, M. S., & Frey, B. N. (2015) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2015.08.003 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Schizotypy and emotional memory
Hoshi, R., Scoales, M., Mason, O. J., & Kamboj, S. K. (2011) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2011.05.003 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Nocebo phenomena may be enhanced in aging: Implications for clinical practice
Kravvariti, E., Kotsani, M., Mitsikostas, D. D., & Sfikakis, P. P. (2020) · Maturitas · doi:10.1016/j.maturitas.2020.07.011 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Dissociating retrieval success from incidental encoding activity during emotional memory retrieval, in the medial temporal lobe
Shafer, A. T., & Dolcos, F. (2014) · Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2014.00177 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
The robustness of false memory for emotional pictures
Bessette-Symons, B. (2018) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2017.1339091 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“Like other research using valence-specific thematic categories (e.g., Anderson et al., 2006; Choi, Kensinger, & Rajaram, 2013; Mackiewicz, Sarinopoulos, Cleven, & Nitschke, 2006; Weymar, Löw, & Hamm, 2011), neither study assessed whether emotional thematic categories are more related than neutral…”
Method
Behavioral and neural correlates of visual emotion discrimination and empathy in mild cognitive impairment
Pernigo, S., Gambina, G., Valbusa, V., Condoleo, M. T., Broggio, E., Beltramello, A., Moretto, G., & Moro, V. (2015) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2015.07.047 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Emotional false memory in autism spectrum disorder: More than spared.
Solomon, M., Iosif, A., Krug, M. K., Nordahl, C. W., Adler, E. J., Mirandola, C., & Ghetti, S. (2019) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/abn0000418 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Effects of Isometric Hand-Grip Muscle Contraction on Young Adults' Free Recall and Recognition Memory
Tomporowski, P. D., Albrecht, C., & Pendleton, D. M. (2017) · Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport · doi:10.1080/02701367.2016.1264567 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Aqueous solution processed mesoporous silica-gated photo-perception neuromorphic transistor
Ren, Z. Y., Zhu, L. Q., Ai, L., Lou, X., Cai, J. C., Li, Z. Y., & Xiao, H. (2020) · Journal of Materials Science · doi:10.1007/s10853-020-05560-z · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Savouring the Present to Better Recall the Past
Colombo, D., Pavani, J., Quoidbach, J., Baños, R., Folgado-Alufre, M., & Botella, C. (2024) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-024-00721-2 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“Furthermore, highly arousing events have been shown to lead to more durable, detailed and self-perceived accurate memories (Anderson et al., 2006; Cahill & McGaugh, 1995; Phelps & Sharot, 2008).”
Faces in the dark: interactive effects of darkness and anxiety on the memory for threatening faces
Nakashima, S. F., Morimoto, Y., Takano, Y., Yoshikawa, S., & Hugenberg, K. (2014) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01091 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“, 2003; D’Argembeau and Van der Linden, 2007) or null effect of facial expression (Anderson et al., 2006; Ishai and Yago, 2006).”
A randomized controlled dismantling study of Visual Schema Displacement Therapy (VSDT) vs an abbreviated EMDR protocol vs a non-active control condition in individuals with disturbing memories
Matthijssen, S. J. M. A., Brouwers, T. C., van den Hout, M., Klugkist, I. G., & de Jongh, A. (2021) · European Journal of Psychotraumatology · doi:10.1080/20008198.2021.1883924 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Emotion, Stress, and Memory
Hoscheidt, S., Dongaonkar, B., Payne, J. D., & Nadel, L. (2013) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195376746.013.0035 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Overnight retention of emotional memories is influenced by BDNF Val66Met but not 5-HTTLPR
Harrington, M. O., Klaus, K., Vaht, M., Harro, J., Pennington, K., & Durrant, S. J. (2018) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2018.10.015 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Age differences in selective memory of goal-relevant stimuli under threat.
Durbin, K. A., Clewett, D., Huang, R., & Mather, M. (2018) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/emo0000398 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Affective Episodic Memory System for Virtual Creatures: The First Step of Emotion‐Oriented Memory
Martin, L., Rosales, J.-H., Jaime, K., & Ramos, F. (2021) · Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience · doi:10.1155/2021/7954140 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“Emotionally aversive scenes specifically enhance recollection rather than familiarity [79].”
Background
Physiological reactions at encoding selectively predict recognition of emotional images.
Pilarczyk, J., Sterna, R., Schwertner, E., Pacula, B., Bartoszek, M., & Kuniecki, M. (2022) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2022.108429 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Investigating the interaction of pleasantness and arousal and the role of aesthetic emotions on episodic memory using a musical what-where-when paradigm
Nawaz, S., & Omigie, D. (2023) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2023.2185206 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“, 2015) and that negatively valenced (unpleasant) scenes, events and object details are more likely to be remembered than neutral and positively-valenced ones (Anderson et al., 2006; Kensinger, 2009).”
Background
Better memory for intrinsic versus extrinsic details underlies the enhanced recollective experience of negative eventsPreprint
Mihaylova, M., Vuilleumier, P. O., & Rimmele, U. (2019) · Learning & Memory · doi:10.1101/lm.049734.119 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“Emotionally arousing stimuli attract attention (Anderson and Phelps 2001; Fox et al. 2001; Öhman et al. 2001; MacKay et al. 2004), enhance perception (Phelps et al. 2006; Bocanegra and Zeelenberg 2009; Todd et al. 2012), and increase sympathetic arousal (Anderson et al. 2006).”
Background
Effects of oxazepam on affective perception, recognition, and event-related potentials
Olofsson, J. K., Gospic, K., Petrovic, P., Ingvar, M., & Wiens, S. (2011) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-010-2141-z · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“After the stimulus encoding stage, arousal hence contributes to memory consolidation (Anderson et al. 2006; Kleinsmith and Kaplan 1963).”
Background
Unveiling negative memorable experiences of hotel guests: An innovative algorithmic analysis
Althubiti, K., Alhamadani, A., Khan, M., & Shah, M. G. H. (2025) · International Journal of Hospitality Management · doi:10.1016/j.ijhm.2025.104087 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Anticipation of electric shocks modulates low beta power and event-related fields during memory encoding
Bauch, E. M., & Bunzeck, N. (2015) · Neurobiology of Learning and Memory · doi:10.1016/j.nlm.2015.06.010 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
O efeito do alerta emocional na qualidade da memória
Neufeld, C. B., Brust-Renck, P. G., Leite, L. S., & Palma, P. D. C. (2013) · Estudos de Psicologia (Campinas) · doi:10.1590/s0103-166x2013000300003 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Disruptions to processing of self referential emotional material are associated with positive symptoms of schizotypy.
Saunders, J., Vallath, S., & Reed, P. (2015) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2015.07.086 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“Also consistent with this finding is that subjective emotional arousal is associated with an increase in attention and encoding of salient stimuli in the environment (Anderson et al., 2006; Buchanan et al., 2006; Kensinger and Corkin, 2003).”
Effects of emotional study context on immediate and delayed recognition memory: Evidence from event-related potentials
Kuhn, L. K., Bader, R., & Mecklinger, A. (2021) · Cognitive Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3758/s13415-021-00944-3 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
The effectiveness, efficiency, and acceptability of EMDR vs. EMDR 2.0 vs. the Flash technique in the treatment of patients with PTSD: study protocol for the ENHANCE randomized controlled trial
van Geusau, V. A., de Jongh, A., Nuijs, M. D., Brouwers, T. C., Moerbeek, M., & Matthijssen, S. J. M. A. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1278052 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Transcutaneous vagus nerve stimulation enhances episodic memory across valences and memory stages
Mary, A., Nematollahi, H., Torres, D., Chernyshkova, Y., Vonck, K. E. J., & Carrette, E. (2026) · Brain stimulation · doi:10.1016/j.brs.2026.103051 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Age-related reduction in anxiety and neural encoding of negative emotional memory
Chaudhary, S., Zhang, S., Chen, Y., Dominguez, J. C., Chao, H. H., & Li, C.-S. R. (2024) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2024.1375435 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“Previous studies observed higher sensitivity in recalling negative versus neutral images (Anderson et al., 2006; Rimmele et al., 2011; Xie and Zhang, 2017; Yeh et al., 2021).”
Background
Recalling Tough Times: Exploring the Effect of Acceptance on Autobiographical Memory in Daily Life
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“Consistent with the evidence that less arousing events are usually retrieved with fewer details (Anderson et al., 2006; Berntsen, 2002; Cahill & McGaugh, 1995; Phelps & Sha-rot, 2008), our results might suggest that intense acceptance deployment significantly decreased one’s arousal, thus also…”
False memories to emotional stimuli are not equally affected in right- and left-brain-damaged stroke patients
Buratto, L. G., Zimmermann, N., Ferré, P., Joanette, Y., Fonseca, R. P., & Stein, L. M. (2014) · Brain and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2014.07.002 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
A Diffusion Model Analysis of Decision Biases Affecting Delayed Recognition of Emotional Stimuli
Spaniol, J., Bowen, H. J., Patel, R., & Voß, A. (2021) · doi:10.32920/14637924.v1 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Positive affect amplifies integration within episodic memories in the laboratory and the real worldPreprint
Pratt, J. G., Wemm, S., Harris, B. B., Huang, Y., Sinha, R., & Goldfarb, E. V. (2025) · Learning & Memory · doi:10.1101/lm.053971.124 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“Effects can also vary based on the type of negative stimulus, with memory bene ﬁ ts observed for some (e.g., scenes) but not others (e.g., faces) relative to neutral (Anderson et al. 2006).”

Amygdala activity related to enhanced memory for pleasant and aversive stimuli
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Emotional memory persists longer than event memoryPreprint
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Disentangling the roles of arousal and amygdala activation in emotional declarative memory.
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Arousal gates amygdala interaction with the parahippocampal cortex during encoding of phobic pictures
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Authors: Anderson, A. K., Yamaguchi, Y., Grabski, W., & Lacka, D.
Affiliations: University of Toronto (CA)
Stanford University (US)
ORCID: Anderson, Adam K.
Yamaguchi, Yuki
Venue: Learning & Memory
Publisher: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory
Published: 2006-11
Volume: 13
Issue: 6
Pages: 711-718
ISSN: 1072-0502 (ISSN-L)
1549-5485
DOI: 10.1101/lm.388906
PMC: PMC1783624
OpenAlex: W2168638891
Cited by: 141
References: 68
Citations by year: 2026: 3 · 2025: 5 · 2024: 10 · 2023: 7 · 2022: 3 · 2021: 14 · 2020: 6 · 2019: 8 · 2018: 6 · 2017: 5 · 2016: 4 · 2015: 13 · 2014: 12 · 2013: 8 · 2012: 10
Type: posted content
Language: en
Open access: bronze
doi.org
Locations: Learning & Memory (publishedVersion)
PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada
Topics: Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory and Neural Mechanisms
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Face Recognition and Perception
Keywords: emotional memory, amygdala, fearful faces, recognition memory, episodic memory, memory consolidation, sympathetic activation, skin conductance, recollection, emotional scenes
MeSH terms: Adolescent, Adult, Amygdala, Arousal, Emotions, Facial Expression, Galvanic Skin Response, Humans, Memory, Pattern Recognition, Visual, Photic Stimulation, Reference Values, Recognition, Psychology

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Emotional memories are not all created equal: evidence for selective memory enhancement.

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