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Dataset Security for Machine Learning: Data Poisoning, Backdoor Attacks, and Defenses
Open accessAbstract
As machine learning systems grow in scale, so do their training data requirements, forcing practitioners to automate and outsource the curation of training data in order to achieve state-of-the-art performance. The absence of trustworthy human supervision over the data collection process exposes organizations to security vulnerabilities; training data can be manipulated to control and degrade the downstream behaviors of learned models. The goal of this work is to systematically categorize and discuss a wide range of dataset vulnerabilities and exploits, approaches for defending against these threats, and an array of open problems in this space.
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“The DoD CDAO Responsible AI Toolkit [14] focuses on ethical and operational considerations rather than cryptographic integrity.”
From AI Supply Chain Security: MBOM-PQC Provenance, PQC Attestation, and a Maturity Model for Quantum-Resistant Assurance (2026) · cites this paper as [14]
In the citing paper
“By integrating PQC-safe signatures, hybrid modes, provenance modeling, and continuous attestation, it addresses critical gaps in current AI assurance practices that existing governance frameworks-including the NIST AI RMF [5], NIST SSDF [6], and DoD CDAO Responsible AI Toolkit [14]-do not fill.”
From AI Supply Chain Security: MBOM-PQC Provenance, PQC Attestation, and a Maturity Model for Quantum-Resistant Assurance (2026) · cites this paper as [14]
In the citing paper
“To carry out these attacks, attackers need to have complete knowledge about the target WFL framework, including the number of participants, local training algorithm, aggregation protocol, and global model convergence process [51], [243].”
From Data and model poisoning backdoor attacks on wireless federated learning, and the defense mechanisms: A comprehensive survey (2024) · cites this paper as [51]
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Self-citationThe "Automatic" Robustness of Minimum Distance Functionals
Donoho, D. L., & Liu, R. C. (1988) · The Annals of Statistics · doi:10.1214/aos/1176350820 · Cited by 201
TABOR: A Highly Accurate Approach to Inspecting and Restoring Trojan Backdoors in AI SystemsPreprint
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Self-citationUniversal Litmus Patterns: Revealing Backdoor Attacks in CNNs
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Stronger Data Poisoning Attacks Break Data Sanitization Defenses
Koh, P. W., Steinhardt, J., & Liang, P. (2018) · arXiv · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1811.00741 · Cited by 189
Analyzing Federated Learning through an Adversarial Lens
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Fawkes: Protecting Privacy against Unauthorized Deep Learning ModelsPreprint
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Sever: A Robust Meta-Algorithm for Stochastic OptimizationPreprint
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Model-Reuse Attacks on Deep Learning Systems
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Label Sanitization Against Label Flipping Poisoning Attacks
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Influence Functions in Deep Learning Are FragilePreprint
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Witches' Brew: Industrial Scale Data Poisoning via Gradient MatchingPreprint
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Self-citationInfluence Function based Data Poisoning Attacks to Top-N Recommender Systems
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RAB: Provable Robustness Against Backdoor Attacks
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Bypassing Backdoor Detection Algorithms in Deep Learning
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Self-citationTransferable Clean-Label Poisoning Attacks on Deep Neural NetsPreprint
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SpamBayes: Effective open-source, Bayesian based, email classification system.
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Robust Estimation via Robust Gradient Estimation
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Deep k-NN Defense Against Clean-Label Data Poisoning Attacks
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Trojaning Language Models for Fun and Profit
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Explanation-Guided Backdoor Poisoning Attacks Against Malware ClassifiersPreprint
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Backdoor Attacks Against Transfer Learning With Pre-Trained Deep Learning Models
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Concealed Data Poisoning Attacks on NLP Models
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Auditing Differentially Private Machine Learning: How Private is Private SGD?Preprint
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Being Robust (in High Dimensions) Can Be PracticalPreprint
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REFIT: A Unified Watermark Removal Framework For Deep Learning Systems With Limited Data
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Self-citationMetaPoison: Practical General-purpose Clean-label Data PoisoningPreprint
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Self-citationIntrinsic Certified Robustness of Bagging against Data Poisoning Attacks
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Resilience: A Criterion for Learning in the Presence of Arbitrary OutliersPreprint
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Bullseye Polytope: A Scalable Clean-Label Poisoning Attack with Improved Transferability
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Just How Toxic is Data Poisoning? A Unified Benchmark for Backdoor and Data Poisoning AttacksPreprint
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Self-citationStrong Data Augmentation Sanitizes Poisoning and Backdoor Attacks Without an Accuracy Tradeoff
Borgnia, E., Cherepanova, V., Fowl, L., Ghiasi, A., Geiping, J., Goldblum, M., Goldstein, T., & Gupta, A. K. (2021) · IEEE International Conference on Acoustics Speech and Signal Processing · doi:10.1109/icassp39728.2021.9414862 · Cited by 100
Self-citationMahloujifar, S., Diochnos, D. I., & Mahmoody, M. (2019) · AAAI Publications (The Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence (AAAI)) · doi:10.1609/aaai.v33i01.33014536 · Cited by 96
Attack-Resistant Federated Learning with Residual-based ReweightingPreprint
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Self-citationBadNL: Backdoor Attacks Against NLP ModelsPreprint
Chen, X., Salem, A., Michael Backes, A., Ma, S., & Zhang, Y. (2020) · arXiv (Cornell University) · Cited by 87
Self-citationYou Autocomplete Me: Poisoning Vulnerabilities in Neural Code CompletionPreprint
Schuster, R., Song, C., Tromer, E., & Shmatikov, V. (2020) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2007.02220 · Cited by 87
Subpopulation Data Poisoning Attacks
Jagielski, M., Severi, G., Pousette Harger, N., & Oprea, A. (2021) · Proceedings of the 2021 ACM SIGSAC Conference on Computer and Communications Security · doi:10.1145/3460120.3485368 · Cited by 86
Certified Robustness to Label-Flipping Attacks via Randomized SmoothingPreprint
Rosenfeld, E., Winston, E., Ravikumar, P., & Kolter, J. Z. (2020) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2002.03018 · Cited by 83
Recent Advances in Algorithmic High-Dimensional Robust StatisticsPreprint
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Liu, Y., Xie, Y., & Srivastava, A. (2017) · IEEE International Conference on Computer Design: VLSI in Computers and Processors (ICCD) · Cited by 81
DeepSigns: A Generic Watermarking Framework for IP Protection of Deep Learning ModelsPreprint
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Wang, Y., Sarkar, E., Li, W., Maniatakos, M., & Jabari, S. E. (2021) · IEEE Transactions on Information Forensics and Security · doi:10.1109/tifs.2021.3114024 · Cited by 80
Poisoning Attacks with Generative Adversarial NetsPreprint
Muñoz-González, L., Pfitzner, B., Russo, M., Carnerero-Cano, J., & Lupu, E. (2019) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1906.07773 · Cited by 79
TrojDRL: Evaluation of Backdoor Attacks on Deep Reinforcement Learning
Kiourti, P., Wardega, K., Jha, S., & Li, W. (2020) · ACM/IEEE Design Automation Conference (DAC) · doi:10.1109/dac18072.2020.9218663 · Cited by 79
Towards Data Poisoning Attacks in Crowd Sensing Systems
Miao, C., Li, Q., Xiao, H., Jiang, W., Huai, M., & Su, L. (2018) · Proceedings of the Eighteenth ACM International Symposium on Mobile Ad Hoc Networking and Computing · doi:10.1145/3209582.3209594 · Cited by 77
Poisoning Attacks on Algorithmic Fairness
Solans, D., Biggio, B., & Castillo, C. (2021) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-67658-2_10 · Cited by 71
Zhu, L., Ning, R., Wang, C., Xin, C., & Wu, H. (2020) · ACM International Conference on Multimedia (ACM MM) · doi:10.1145/3394171.3413546 · Cited by 63
One-Pixel Signature: Characterizing CNN Models for Backdoor Detection
Huang, S., Peng, W., Jia, Z., & Tu, Z. (2020) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-58583-9_20 · Cited by 63
Backdoors in Neural Models of Source Code
Ramakrishnan, G., & Albarghouthi, A. (2022) · Proceedings - International Conference on Pattern Recognition/Proceedings/International Conference on Pattern Recognition · doi:10.1109/icpr56361.2022.9956690 · Cited by 61
Efficient Label Contamination Attacks Against Black-Box Learning Models
Zhao, M., An, B., Gao, W., & Zhang, T. (2017) · International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.24963/ijcai.2017/551 · Cited by 60
Learning Halfspaces with Malicious Noise
Klivans, A. R., Long, P. M., & Servedio, R. A. (2009) · Cited by 57
Certified Robustness of Nearest Neighbors against Data Poisoning and Backdoor Attacks
Jia, J., Liu, Y., Cao, X., & Gong, N. Z. (2022) · Proceedings of the AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.1609/aaai.v36i9.21191 · Cited by 52
Adversarial Machine Learning -- Industry PerspectivesPreprint
Kumar, R. S. S., Nyström, M., Lambert, J., Marshall, A. D., Goertzel, M., Comissoneru, A., Swann, M., & Xia, S. (2020) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2002.05646 · Cited by 49
Removing Backdoor-Based Watermarks in Neural Networks with Limited Data
Liu, X., Li, F., Wen, B., & Li, Q. (2021) · 2020 25th International Conference on Pattern Recognition (ICPR) · doi:10.1109/icpr48806.2021.9412684 · Cited by 49
Preventing Unauthorized Use of Proprietary Data: Poisoning for Secure Dataset ReleasePreprint
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Self-citationLearning to Confuse: Generating Training Time Adversarial Data with Auto-EncoderPreprint
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TensorClog: An Imperceptible Poisoning Attack on Deep Neural Network Applications
Shen, J., Zhu, X., & Ma, D. (2019) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2019.2905915 · Cited by 46
RAB: Provable Robustness Against Backdoor AttacksPreprint
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Biometric Backdoors: A Poisoning Attack Against Unsupervised Template Updating
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Self-citationData Poisoning Attacks to Local Differential Privacy ProtocolsPreprint
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Data Poisoning Attacks in Contextual Bandits
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Analysis of Causative Attacks against SVMs Learning from Data Streams
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Face-Off: Adversarial Face Obfuscation
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Natural Backdoor Attack on Text DataPreprint
Sun, L. (2020) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2006.16176 · Cited by 40
Zhang, X., Zhu, X., & Lessard, L. (2020) · Cited by 40
Defense against neural trojan attacks: A survey
Kaviani, S., & Sohn, I. (2020) · Neurocomputing · doi:10.1016/j.neucom.2020.07.133 · Cited by 39
Backdoor attacks and defenses in feature-partitioned collaborative learning
Liu, Y., Yi, Z., & Chen, T. (2020) · arXiv · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2007.03608 · Cited by 38
Backdoor Learning: A SurveyPreprint
Li, Y., Jiang, Y., Li, Z., et al. (2020) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2007.08745 · Cited by 38
Learning Halfspaces with Malicious Noise
Klivans, A. R., Long, P. M., & Servedio, R. A. (2009) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-02927-1_51 · Cited by 36
Design of intentional backdoors in sequential modelsPreprint
Yang, Z., Iyer, N., Reimann, J., & Virani, N. (2019) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1902.09972 · Cited by 36
MaxUp: A Simple Way to Improve Generalization of Neural Network TrainingPreprint
Gong, C., Ren, T., Ye, M., & Liu, Q. (2020) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2002.09024 · Cited by 35
Principled approaches to robust machine learning and beyond
Li, J. Z. (2018) · DSpace@MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology) · Cited by 31
Data Poisoning Attacks on Stochastic BanditsPreprint
Liu, F., & Shroff, N. B. (2019) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1905.06494 · Cited by 29
On the Impossibility of Cryptography with Tamperable Randomness
Austrin, P., Chung, K.-M., Mahmoody, M., Pass, R., & Seth, K. (2014) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-44371-2_26 · Cited by 27
Trojan Attack on Deep Generative Models in Autonomous Driving
Ding, S., Tian, Y., Xu, F., Li, Q., & Zhong, S. (2019) · Lecture notes of the Institute for Computer Sciences, Social Informatics and Telecommunications Engineering · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-37228-6_15 · Cited by 27
Targeted Poisoning Attacks on Social Recommender Systems
Hu, R., Guo, Y., Pan, M., & Gong, Y. (2019) · Globecom · doi:10.1109/globecom38437.2019.9013539 · Cited by 26
A game-theoretic analysis of label flipping attacks on distributed support vector machines
Zhang, R., & Zhu, Q. (2017) · Conference on Information Sciences and Systems · doi:10.1109/ciss.2017.7926118 · Cited by 25
Generalized Resilience and Robust StatisticsPreprint
Zhu, B., Jiao, J., & Steinhardt, J. (2019) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1909.08755 · Cited by 25
Practical Poisoning Attacks on Neural Networks
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Flagged first, then by citations
11 of the 233 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Research works printed but not linked: 6
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- Valiant, Learning disjunction of conjunctions, 560
- Mahloujifar, Learning under -tampering attacks, 572
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
Evaluating Large Language Models Trained on Code
Chen, M., Tworek, J., Jun, H., Yuan, Q., Pinto, H. P. D. O., Kaplan, J., Edwards, H., Burda, Y., Joseph, N., Brockman, G., et al. (2021) · arXiv · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2107.03374 · Cited by 1,436
“Similarly, the public data should generally be treated as untrusted, as previous work (Goldblum et al., 2021; Schuster et al., 2020) has found that attackers may be able to corrupt training data to trigger specific model behaviors at runtime.”
BackgroundLi, Y., Jiang, Y., Li, Z., & Xia, S.-T. (2024) · IEEE Transactions on Neural Networks and Learning Systems · doi:10.1109/tnnls.2022.3182979 · Cited by 682
Unleashing the potential of prompt engineering for large language models
CHEN, B. ‐., Zhang, Z., Langrené, N., & Zhu, S. (2025) · Patterns · doi:10.1016/j.patter.2025.101260 · Cited by 1,097
Shejwalkar, V., Houmansadr, A., Kairouz, P., & Ramage, D. (2022) · 2022 IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy (SP) · doi:10.1109/sp46214.2022.9833647 · Cited by 292
Adversarial Attacks and Defenses in Deep Learning: From a Perspective of Cybersecurity
Zhou, S., Liu, C., Ye, D., Zhu, T., Zhou, W., & Yu, P. S. (2022) · ACM Computing Surveys · doi:10.1145/3547330 · Cited by 195
Metadata
- Authors
- Goldblum, M., Tsipras, D., Xie, C., Chen, X., Schwarzschild, A., Song, D., Madry, A., Li, B., & Goldstein, T.
- Affiliations
- University of Maryland, College Park (US)
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology (US)
- University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign (US)
- University of California, Berkeley (US)
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Venue
- IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence
- Published
- 2023-02-01
- Volume
- 45
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 1563-1580
- ISSN
- 0162-8828 (ISSN-L)
- 2160-9292
- 1939-3539
- OpenAlex
- W3117572899
- Cited by
- 362
- References
- 233
- Citations by year
- 2026: 76 · 2025: 91 · 2024: 78 · 2023: 66
- FWCI
- 21.63
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- arxiv.org
- Licence
- Locations
- IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University) (submittedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University) (cc-by)
- Funders
- Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency
- QED4RML
- D3M programs
- National Science Foundation (CCF-1910100, TWC-1409915, CCF-1553428, CNS-1815221, DMS-1912866)
- Amazon Research Award Program
- Berkeley DeepDrive
- Facebook PhD Fellowship
- ONR MURI Program
- Alfred P. Sloan Foundation
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Adversarial Robustness in Machine Learning
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Privacy-Preserving Technologies in Data
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Hardware and Architecture › Security and Verification in Computing
- Keywords
- data poisoning, backdoor attacks, machine learning security, attack defense
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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