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Cited by 638Psychological Well-being and Life SatisfactionPsychometric Methodologies and TestingHealth, psychology, and well-being

Review of 99 self-report measures for assessing well-being in adults: exploring dimensions of well-being and developments over time

Open access
Linton, Myles-Jay, Dieppe, Paul, Medina-Lara, Antonieta·2016·BMJ Open
DOI 10.1136/bmjopen-2015-010641PMC PMC4947747
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Abstract

Objective: Investigators within many disciplines are using measures of well-being, but it is not always clear what they are measuring, or which instruments may best meet their objectives. The aims of this review were to: systematically identify well-being instruments, explore the variety of well-being dimensions within instruments and describe how the production of instruments has developed over time. Design: Systematic searches, thematic analysis and narrative synthesis were undertaken. Data sources: MEDLINE, EMBASE, EconLit, PsycINFO, Cochrane Library and CINAHL from 1993 to 2014 complemented by web searches and expert consultations through 2015. Eligibility criteria: Instruments were selected for review if they were designed for adults (≥18 years old), generic (ie, non-disease or context specific) and available in an English version. Results: A total of 99 measures of well-being were included, and 196 dimensions of well-being were identified within them. Dimensions clustered around 6 key thematic domains: mental well-being, social well-being, physical well-being, spiritual well-being, activities and functioning, and personal circumstances. Authors were rarely explicit about how existing theories had influenced the design of their tools; however, the 2 most referenced theories were Diener's model of subjective well-being and the WHO definition of health. The period between 1990 and 1999 produced the greatest number of newly developed well-being instruments (n=27). An illustration of the dimensions identified and the instruments that measure them is provided within a thematic framework of well-being. Conclusions: This review provides researchers with an organised toolkit of instruments, dimensions and an accompanying glossary. The striking variability between instruments supports the need to pay close attention to what is being assessed under the umbrella of ‘well-being’ measurement.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This systematic review identified 99 generic self-report well-being measures for adults and catalogued 196 dimensions, clustering into six key thematic domains plus a global well-being set. It found substantial variability in definitions, dimensions and instrument design, with Diener’s subjective well-being model and the WHO definition of health as the most referenced theories.

Key findings

  • 99 measures were included and 196 dimensions of well-being were identified; dimensions clustered around 6 key thematic domains: mental well-being, social well-being, physical well-being, spiritual well-being, activities and functioning, and personal circumstances, with a seventh set measuring global well-being overall.
  • 67/99 instruments were multidimensional, containing on average 5 dimensions (range 1–15); 69% of dimensions (136/196) appeared in only one instrument. Recurring dimensions included psychological well-being overall (n=13), physical well-being overall (n=12), social well-being overall (n=9), depression (n=9), positive affect (n=8) and relationships (n=8).
  • The period 1990–1999 produced the greatest number of newly developed well-being instruments (n=27); since 2010, 14 new tools and 8 revisions had been published. The oldest instruments were from 1961 and the newest from 2015.
  • The two most referenced theories were Diener’s model of subjective well-being and the WHO definition of health; however, authors were rarely explicit about how existing theories influenced their tool design. Compared with the largest review of the topic to date, this review contained an additional 40 instruments.

Methods

  • Systematic searches were conducted in MEDLINE, EMBASE, EconLit, PsycINFO, Cochrane Library and CINAHL from 1993 to 2014, complemented by web searches and expert consultations through 2015; 2520 unique records were screened, 129 instruments assessed for eligibility, 30 excluded, and 99 included.
  • Instruments were included if designed for adults (≥18 years), generic (non-disease or context-specific), available in English, and intended to assess well-being including concepts such as quality of life, happiness and wellness; disease-specific, context-specific, and child/adolescent instruments were excluded.
  • Data extraction was undertaken by two reviewers, and dimensions were organised using thematic analysis in NVivo V.8, with discrepancies resolved through discussion with a third reviewer; results were synthesised narratively.

Limitations

  • Stated in the paper: the review was limited to adult generic measures due to practical constraints, so condition-specific instruments and tools for children and adolescents were not included.
  • Stated in the paper: the extensive literature, inconsistent phrasing and disorganisation make a definitive list of instruments unlikely; the review does not recommend any one specific instrument, and further research is needed on psychometric properties, especially content and construct validity.
  • Evident from the text: the review does not assess the psychometric quality, validity or reliability of the included instruments; definitions of well-being and dimensions were often incomplete or unclear, and dimensions may overlap or be used inconsistently.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1136/bmjopen-2015-010641

Cites

137 of 137 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 35 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data

    Authors of well-being instruments were rarely explicit about how existing theories had influenced the design of their tools.

    “Authors were rarely explicit about how existing theories had influenced the design of their tools”
    • Also stated in: § Instrument characteristics · plain
      “In many cases, however, authors did not specify the theories that had influenced the design of their instrument.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    The 196 dimensions clustered around six key thematic domains: mental well-being, social well-being, physical well-being, spiritual well-being, activities and functioning, and personal circumstances.

    “Dimensions clustered around 6 key thematic domains: mental well-being, social well-being, physical well-being, spiritual well-being, activities and functioning, and personal circumstances.”
    • Also stated in: § Dimensions linked to themes · plain
      “The dimensions clustered around six key themes: ‘mental well-being’, ‘social well-being’, ‘physical well-being’, ‘spiritual well-being’, ‘personal circumstances’ and ‘activities and functioning’.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    The two most referenced theories in the literature were Diener's model of subjective well-being and the WHO definition of health.

    “the 2 most referenced theories were Diener's model of subjective well-being and the WHO definition of health.”
    • Also stated in: § Instrument characteristics · plain
      “The two theoretical influences most commonly reported in the literature were Diener's127 model of SWB and the WHO definition of health”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [127] source

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    • cites [128] World Health Organization. Constitution of the World Health Organization, as adopted by the International Health Conference, New York, 19–22 June 1946; signed on 22 July 1946 by the representatives of 61 States (Official Records of the World Health Organization, no. 2, p. 100) and entered into force on 7 April 1948. WHO, Geneva, Switzerland. 1948. Constitution of the World Health Organization. 2006. www.who.int/governance/eb/who_constitution_en.pdf

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  • Findingown data

    196 dimensions of well-being were identified within the 99 measures.

    “196 dimensions of well-being were identified within them.”
    • Also stated in: § Dimensions of well-being · plain
      “Across the 99 instruments identified, 196 different dimensions were found.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    A total of 99 measures of well-being were included in the review.

    “A total of 99 measures of well-being were included”
    • Also stated in: § Identification of instruments · plain
      “Table 1 contains details on each of the 99 instruments included in the final review.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 44
  • May combine two claims. 26

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingcitation

    Psychological well-being was used as an alternative phrasing for mental health.

    “and psychological well-being was used as an alternative phrasing for mental health.74”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [74] source

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    Findingnone given

    Classifying instruments by discipline proved impractical.

    “However, classifying instruments by discipline proved impractical.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

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    Findingown data

    The majority of instruments were multidimensional (67/99), and on average contained 5 dimensions (range 1-15).

    “The majority of instruments were multidimensional (67/99), and on average contained 5 dimensions (range 1–15).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    A total of 129 instruments were assessed for eligibility.

    “From the identified publications, a total of 129 instruments were assessed for eligibility”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The oldest instruments identified were developed in 1961, and the newest in 2015.

    “the oldest instruments identified were developed in 1961 (tool 39: LSI-A and tool 10 V.1: BDI) while the newest tools were developed in 2015 (tool 33: ICOPPE and tool 23: FWBS).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Since 2010, 14 new tools and 8 revisions have already been published.

    “Since 2010, 14 new tools and 8 revisions have already been published.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    30 instruments were excluded: 4 designed for children/adolescents, 14 for specific clinical conditions, 6 for specific contexts, and 6 deemed not measures of well-being.

    “30 of these instruments were excluded as they were either: designed for use in children/adolescents (4/30); explicitly designed for use in specific clinical conditions (14/30); designed for specific contexts (6/30) or were deemed by the review team to not be measures of well-being (6/30).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The majority of measures contained multiple items (95/99), with the largest containing 317 items.

    “The majority of measures contained multiple items (95/99), the largest containing 317 items (tool 78: SEQOL).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Most instruments used verbal questions (97/99), while two tools were pictorial.

    “Most of the instruments used verbal questions (97/99), however two tools were pictorial (tool 12: CL and tool 96: WPS).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingcitation

    Mental well-being and mental health were acknowledged as being used interchangeably throughout the literature.

    “mental well-being and mental health were acknowledged as being used interchangeably throughout the literature,133”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [133] source

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    Findingcitation

    The subjective component of well-being was consistently divided into an affective component concerned with emotions and a cognitive component concerned with how people evaluate their own lives.

    “The subjective component of well-being was consistently divided into an ‘affective’ component concerned with emotions and a ‘cognitive’ component concerned with how people evaluate their own lives.50 109”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [50] Şimşek, 2011, An intentional model of emotional well-being: the development and initial validation of a measure of subjective well-being, J Happiness Stud source

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    • cites [109] source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingreasoning

    Authors were generally inconsistent on whether happiness should be understood as synonymous with subjective well-being, specifically the affective portion of subjective well-being, or a separate concept in itself.

    “Authors were generally inconsistent on whether happiness should be understood as synonymous with SWB, specifically the affective portion of SWB, or a separate concept in itself.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingreasoning

    The difference between subjective well-being and terms used synonymously with it seemed to be unclear.

    “The difference between SWB and terms used synonymously seemed to be unclear.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given

    Over the past 15 years, there have been significant efforts to contrast measures of ill health and unhappiness with measures of positive functioning and adaptation to negative circumstances.

    “Finally, over the past 15 years, there have been significant efforts to contrast the many measures of ill health and unhappiness with measures of positive functioning and adaptation to negative circumstances.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Positive affect was found within 8 tools and has gradually appeared within instruments over time.

    “In contrast, more favourable dimensions such as ‘positive affect’ (found within 8 tools) have gradually appeared within instruments over time”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given

    Most instruments were developed by interdisciplinary teams.

    “Most instruments were developed by interdisciplinary teams.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

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    Findingown data

    The systematic search provided 2520 unique records after duplicates had been removed.

    “The systematic search provided 2520 unique records after duplicates had been removed.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

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    Findingcitation

    Authors frequently quoted the WHO definition of health as 'a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being, not merely the absence of a disease'.

    “Authors frequently quoted the WHO definition of health as ‘a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being, not merely the absence of a disease’.93 104”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [93] Vaingankar, 2011, The positive mental health instrument: development and validation of a culturally relevant scale in a multi-ethnic Asian population, Health Qual Life Outcomes source

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    • cites [104] source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingcitation

    Definitions that partitioned well-being into a subjective domain and a separate objective domain provided greater specificity.

    “Greater specificity was provided by definitions that partitioned well-being into a subjective domain, and a separate objective domain.42”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [42] source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingcitation

    Subjective well-being was noted as a synonym of happiness.

    “SWB was noted as a synonym of happiness,116”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [116] source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given

    Throughout the literature, incomplete and unclear definitions of well-being were provided.

    “Throughout the literature, incomplete and unclear definitions were provided.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingcitation

    Well-being was broadly defined as a multidimensional construct.

    “Broadly speaking, however, well-being was defined as a multidimensional construct.130”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [130] source

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    Findingreasoning

    Little explanation was given regarding how objective well-being should be conceptualised.

    “As the instruments were attempting to measure well-being through self-reported means, little explanation was given regarding how objective well-being should be conceptualised.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Psychological well-being overall (n=13); physical well-being overall (n=12); social well-being overall (n=9); depression (n=9); positive affect (n=8) and relationships (n=8) appeared multiple times within the instruments examined.

    “Psychological well-being overall (n=13); physical well-being overall (n=12); social well-being overall (n=9); depression (n=9); positive affect (n=8) and relationships (n=8) appeared multiple times within the instruments examined.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Instruments were named after key authors (11/99), academic affiliation (7/99), or organisational affiliation (5/99).

    “Instruments were named after key authors (11/99) such as the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, academic affiliation (7/99) as with the Oxford Happiness Questionnaire or organisational affiliation (5/99) as with the WHO-5.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given

    The majority of tools used five-point bipolar Likert scales.

    “However, the majority of the tools used five-point bipolar Likert scales.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingreasoning

    The explicit difference between definitions of well-being and health appeared paradoxical.

    “The explicit difference between definitions of well-being and health appeared paradoxical.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Findingnone given

    Terms like functioning, welfare, wellness and satisfaction continue to be used interchangeably.

    “Unhelpfully, terms like functioning, welfare, wellness and satisfaction continue to be used interchangeably.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Findingown data

    The review provided a timeline illustrating the development of well-being tools over the past 50 years.

    “We have provided a detailed inventory of 99 generic measures of adult well-being, a timeline illustrating the development of these tools over the past 50 years and a thematically catalogued register of 196 available dimensions.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Findingnone given

    The quantitative difference between concepts such as happiness and emotional well-being, or life purpose and life meaning, remains unclear.

    “The quantitative difference between some concepts such as happiness and emotional well-being, or life purpose and life meaning, remain unclear.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Short measures of global well-being, such as the Arizona Integrative Outcomes Scale (AIOS) or the WHO-5, provide quick global snapshots on well-being while taking up very little time from participants.

    “Short measures of global well-being, such as the Arizona Integrative Outcomes Scale (AIOS) or the WHO-5 provide quick global snapshots on well-being, while taking up very little time from participants.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    The review identified a diverse set of well-being tools, many of which are products of cross-disciplinary collaborations drawing on influences across different schools of thought.

    “our work highlights a diverse set of tools, many the products of cross-disciplinary collaborations that draw on influences across different schools of thought.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    Broader scoped instruments such as the Biopsychosocialspiritual Inventory (BIOPSSI) or the Mental Physical Spiritual Well-Being Scale (MPS) assess well-being separately across themes and are thus able to provide a more comprehensive assessment.

    “In comparison, broader scoped instruments such as the Biopsychosocialspiritual Inventory (BIOPSSI) or the Mental Physical Spiritual Well-Being Scale (MPS) assess well-being separately across themes, and are thus able to provide a more comprehensive assessment.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    Other instruments assess more specific dimensions such as financial distress/well-being or social acceptance; these instruments are conceptually narrower and better equipped to facilitate more focused assessment.

    “Other instruments assess more specific dimensions such as financial distress/well-being or social acceptance. These instruments are conceptually narrower and, as a result, are better equipped to facilitate more focused assessment.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The majority of dimensions were linked to 'mental well-being', followed by 'social well-being' and 'activities and functioning'.

    “The majority of dimensions were linked to ‘mental well-being’, followed by ‘social well-being’ and ‘activities and functioning’.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The understanding of health as complete physical, mental and social well-being blurs the boundaries between health and well-being.

    “This understanding blurs the boundaries between health and well-being.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Although biological, psychological, social, economic and spiritual dimensions of well-being have been acknowledged in the literature, the way they are operationalised as dimensions across measures of well-being is largely unstated.

    “Although the biological, psychological, social, economic and spiritual dimensions of well-being have been acknowledged in the literature,22–24 the way in which they are operationalised as dimensions across measures of well-being is largely unstated.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [22] Bensley, 1991, Defining spiritual health: a review of the literature, J Health Educ source

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    • cites [23] source

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    • cites [24] source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Many measures of well-being resemble multidimensional measures of health.

    “As such, many measures of well-being resemble multidimensional measures of health.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Premisecitation

    Despite OECD efforts to formalise the measurement of well-being, not enough exhaustive advice is provided on how researchers can effectively use the many self-report instruments already developed.

    “Despite efforts by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) to formalise the measurement of well-being,25 not enough exhaustive advice is provided on how researchers can effectively use the many self-report instruments that have already been developed within existing literature.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [25] OECD. How's life? 2013. Paris: OECD Publishing, 2013.

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    New tools continue to be developed in order to reflect differing perspectives, changing clinical needs and input from newly interested disciplines such as public health.

    “Regardless, new tools continue to be developed in order to reflect differing perspectives,14 changing clinical needs15 and input from newly interested disciplines, such as public health.16”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [14] Diener, 2010, New well-being measures: short scales to assess flourishing and positive and negative feelings, Soc Indicators Res source

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    • cites [15] Joseph, 2014, Positive functioning inventory: initial validation of a 12-item self-report measure of well-being, Psychol Wellbeing

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    • cites [16] Bann, 2012, Development and psychometric evaluation of the public health surveillance well-being scale, Qual Life Res source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Previous reviews have highlighted some available tools, but not all have used systematic methods for identifying measures.

    “Previous reviews have highlighted some of the available tools.29–31 However, not all have used systematic methods for identifying measures.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [29] Schiaffino, 2003, Other measures of psychological well-being: the Affect Balance Scale (ABS), General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-12), Life Satisfaction Index-A (LSI-A), Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS), and State-Trait Anxiety Index (STAI), Arthritis Care Res source

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    • cites [30] source

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    • cites [31] source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    No universally accepted measure of well-being has emerged, in part because there are no agreed conceptual criteria concerning what an instrument should contain.

    “Despite the continued development of new instruments, no universally accepted measure has emerged,13 in part because there are no agreed conceptual criteria concerning what an instrument should contain.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [13] source

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    Premisecitation

    Instruments are scattered across disciplines, inconsistently labelled, and the differences between them are unclear.

    “Instruments are scattered across disciplines, inconsistently labelled, and the differences between them are unclear.18”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [18] Gasper, 2010, Understanding the diversity of conceptions of well-being and quality of life, J Socio Econ source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Theories of well-being are problematic due to their vast numbers, with investigators approaching the topic from perspectives such as basic human needs, capabilities, and integrated hybrid approaches.

    “Theories of well-being are problematic due to their vast numbers; for example, some investigators approach the topic from the perspective of basic human needs,10 while others examine the capabilities of individuals11 and multiple theories have been integrated into new hybrid approaches.12”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [10] source

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    • cites [11] Sen A . Commodities and capabilities. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1985.

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    • cites [12] source

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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The review's aim was limited to adult generic measures due to practical constraints, and condition-specific instruments and tools designed for children and adolescents were not included.

    “The aim of the review was limited to adult generic measures due to practical constraints, and as a result condition-specific instruments and tools designed for use with children and adolescents were not included.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationcitation

    The spike in the number of well-being instruments developed in the past 20 years may have been influenced by growing academic recognition that self-reported well-being data have demonstrable empirical and economic value.

    “The spike in the number of instruments developed in the past 20 years in particular may have been influenced by the growing academic recognition that self-reported data produced by measures of well-being have demonstrable empirical and economic value.134”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [134] source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The growth in the number of well-being instruments is likely due to increasing multidisciplinary interest in the topic.

    “The growth observed is likely due to increasing multidisciplinary interest in the topic.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationcitation

    Subjective well-being (SWB) may differ from health in that it inherently targets how individuals think and feel about the quality of their own lives.

    “‘SWB’ may differ from health in that it inherently targets how individuals think and feel about the quality of their own lives.127”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [127] source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Some well-being measures developed many years ago may no longer be of value due to the ongoing development of newer instruments or because they are based on outdated theories.

    “Others developed many years ago may simply no longer be of value due to the ongoing development of newer instruments or because they are based on outdated theories.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Well-being contains positive phenomena such as joy and social acceptance, negative phenomena such as anxiety and pain, subjective feelings and perceptions, and more objective material circumstances or health states.

    “It contains positive phenomena such as joy and social acceptance, negative phenomena such as anxiety and pain, subjective feelings and perceptions, and more ‘objective’ material circumstances or health states.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The review team included academics with backgrounds in psychology, economics and clinical medicine/public health, helping to minimise disciplinary biases.

    “The review team included academics with backgrounds in psychology (M-JL), economics (AM-L) and clinical medicine/public health (PD), helping to minimise disciplinary biases.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    Prior to analysis, the review team examined the full set of dimensions and combined dimensions that were unanimously identified as being indistinguishable.

    “Prior to the analysis, the review team (M-JL, AM-L and PD) examined the full set of dimensions and combined dimensions that were unanimously identified as being indistinguishable.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Well-being should be understood as a multidimensional construct, reflecting themes that often overlap.

    “Taken together, however, well-being should be understood as a multidimensional construct, reflecting themes that often overlap.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    It is unlikely that any search strategy could collate a definitive list of well-being instruments.

    “It is unlikely that any search strategy could collate a definitive list of instruments; however, hopefully the broad approach taken in the current work is able to complement the selective reviews already in existence.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Some of the available well-being measures may be too similar to other instruments already in use.

    “For example, some of the measures available may be too similar to other instruments already in use.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The consistent rate at which new well-being instruments have been developed suggests that continued growth can be expected.

    “The consistent rate at which new instruments have been developed suggests that continued growth can be expected.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    There is little consistent agreement on how well-being should be measured, how instruments should be designed, or which dimensions should be included.

    “The evidence suggests that there is little consistent agreement on how well-being should be measured, how instruments should be designed or which dimensions should be included.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    Coding of dimensions was undertaken by two reviewers, and discrepancies were solved through discussion with a third member of the review team.

    “Coding was undertaken by two reviewers (M-JL and AM-L) and any discrepancies that arose were solved through discussion with the third member of the review team (PD).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    Data extraction was undertaken by two reviewers.

    “Data extraction was undertaken by two reviewers (M-JL and AM-L).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
59 of 59

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Definitions of well-being often differ by discipline and are frequently confused with related topics such as health-related quality of life, happiness and wellness.

    “For example, definitions of well-being often differ by discipline, and are frequently confused with related topics such as health-related quality of life, happiness and wellness.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Relatively little attention has been paid to how varying perspectives have influenced the development and range of well-being measurement instruments.

    “However, relatively little attention has been paid to how these varying perspectives have influenced the development and range of well-being measurement instruments in existence.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Ambiguity is caused by variability in the dimensions of well-being used between instruments.

    “Ambiguity is also caused by variability in the dimensions of well-being used between instruments.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    There is no agency or group that oversees and coordinates the development and organisation of well-being measures.

    “As with most domains of measurement, there is no agency or group that oversees and coordinates the development and organisation of well-being measures.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Many previous reviews focused on psychometric properties such as validity and reliability, but the tools themselves are typically listed without clear analysis of how their content differs.

    “Many of the reviews to date have focused on psychometric properties such as validity and reliability; however, the tools themselves are typically listed without clear analysis of how their content differs.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The evolution of instruments over time and their theoretical underpinnings have not been described.

    “Further, the evolution of instruments over time and their theoretical underpinnings have not been described.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    What is a priority for measuring well-being in one discipline may not be a priority in another context.

    “Further, what is a priority for measuring well-being in one discipline, such as health economics, may not be a priority in another context, such as clinical psychology.”
7 of 7

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • The self-report measures identified by Linton et al. clustered around six key themes: mental well-being, social wellbeing, physical well-being, spiritual well-being, activities and functioning, and personal circumstances.

    “The self-report measures identified by Linton et al. (2016) clustered around six key themes, with most measures capturing a few of the six types of wellbeing: mental well-being, social wellbeing, physical well-being, spiritual well-being, activities and functioning, and personal circumstances.”

    From What do we know about interventions to improve educator wellbeing? A systematic literature review (2024) · cites this paper as Linton et al., 2016

  • One review identified 99 self-report measures of wellbeing.

    “A broad array of self-report measures of wellbeing exist, with one review identifying 99 measures (Linton et al., 2016).”

    From What do we know about interventions to improve educator wellbeing? A systematic literature review (2024) · cites this paper as Linton et al., 2016

  • The SLR identified two prior reviews of well-being scales (using a very broad definition of well-being that included quality of life, physical well-being, and health), which found 99 and 60 PROs respectively.

    “In addition, the SLR identified two prior reviews of ‘well-being’ scales (using a very broad definition of well-being that included quality of life, physical well-being, and health), which found 99 and 60 PROs respectively [6, 7].”

    From Patient-reported outcome measures for life engagement in mental health: a systematic review (2022) · cites this paper as [6]

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Warwick-Edinburgh scale is given the wrong tool number

    Minor

    The text identifies the Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Well-Being Scale as tool 96, but table 1 lists it as tool 95; tool 96 is the Well-Being Picture Scale.

1 of 1

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

4 of the 141 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

Research works printed but not linked: 3

  1. Sintonen, 1989, A generic 15 dimensional measure of health-related quality of life (15D), J Soc Med, 26, 85
  2. Prawitz, 2006, InCharge financial distress/financial well-being scale: development, administration, and score interpretation, J Financ Counsel Plan, 17, 34
  3. World Health Organization. Constitution of the World Health Organization, as adopted by the International Health Conference, New York, 19–22 June 1946; signed on 22 July 1946 by the representatives of 61 States (Official Records of the World Health Organization, no. 2, p. 100) and entered into force on 7 April 1948. WHO, Geneva, Switzerland. 1948. Constitution of the World Health Organization. 2006. www.who.int/governance/eb/who_constitution_en.pdf

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Linton, M.-J., Dieppe, P., & Medina-Lara, A.
Affiliations
  • University of Exeter (GB)
  • Health Economics Group, University of Exeter, Exeter, UK
Corresponding author
Linton, Myles-Jay
ORCID
Venue
BMJ Open
Publisher
BMJ
Published
2016-07
Volume
6
Issue
7
Pages
e010641
ISSN
2044-6055 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1136/bmjopen-2015-010641
PMC
PMC4947747
OpenAlex
W2460276213
Semantic Scholar
62658ff9d536a2117aed56f19b81b5688fa17d35
Cited by
638
References
141
Citations by year
2026: 43 · 2025: 80 · 2024: 78 · 2023: 84 · 2022: 83 · 2021: 95 · 2020: 103 · 2019: 43 · 2018: 21 · 2017: 7 · 2016: 1
FWCI
3.73
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
cc-by-nc
Locations
  • BMJ Open (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
  • Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • Figshare (submittedVersion)
  • HighWire Press Open Archive (submittedVersion)
  • Open Research Exeter (University of Exeter) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc)
  • Explore Bristol Research (submittedVersion, cc-by)
  • Bristol Research (University of Bristol) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
Funders
University of Exeter
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Psychological Well-being and Life Satisfaction
  • Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
  • Health Sciences › Health Professions › General Health Professions › Health, psychology, and well-being
Keywords
well-being, self-report measures, well-being dimensions, psychological well-being, social well-being, physical well-being, spiritual well-being, subjective well-being, WHO definition of health, instrument development, adults
MeSH terms
Activities of Daily Living, Health Status, Humans, Mental Health, Surveys and Questionnaires, Spirituality, Self Report

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-10.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-10.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

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