Synch before you speak: Auditory hallucinations in schizophrenia
Abstract
OBJECTIVE: Synchronization of neural activity preceding self-generated actions may reflect the operation of the forward model, which acts to dampen sensations resulting from those actions. If this is true, pre-action synchrony should be related to subsequent sensory suppression. Deficits in this mechanism may be characteristic of schizophrenia and related to positive symptoms, such as auditory hallucinations. If so, schizophrenia patients should have reduced neural synchrony preceding movements, especially patients with severe hallucinations. METHOD: In 24 patients with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder and 25 healthy comparison subjects, the authors related prespeech neural synchrony to subsequent auditory cortical responsiveness to the spoken sound, compared prespeech neural synchrony in schizophrenia patients and healthy comparison subjects, and related prespeech neural synchrony to auditory hallucination severity in patients. To assess neural synchrony, phase coherence of single-trial EEG preceding talking was calculated at a single site across repeated trials. To assess auditory cortical suppression, the N1 event-related brain potentials to speech sound onset during talking and listening were compared. RESULTS: In healthy comparison subjects, prespeech neural synchrony was related to subsequent suppression of responsiveness to the spoken sound, as reflected in reduction of N1 during talking relative to listening. There was greater prespeech synchrony in comparison subjects than in patients, especially those with severe auditory hallucinations. CONCLUSIONS: These data suggest that EEG synchrony preceding speech reflects the action of a forward model system, which dampens auditory responsiveness to self-generated speech and is deficient in patients who hallucinate.
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Auditory hallucinations are related to inner-speech self-monitoring impairments (comparator model).
“in line with the “comparator model” theory, positing that AHs are related to inner-speech self-monitoring impairments.[37][38][39]”
From Are hallucinations due to an imbalance between excitatory and inhibitory influences on the brain? (2016) · cites this paper as [38]
Patients with AVHs show non-suppression of the N100 event-related potential and impaired pre-speech inter-trial EEG coherence.
“This hypothesis is supported by studies showing non-suppression of the N100 event-related potential and impaired pre-speech inter-trial electroencephalographic (EEG) coherence in patients with AVHs (6,7).”
From Elevated functional connectivity along a corticostriatal loop and the mechanism of auditory/verbal hallucinations in patients with schizophrenia (2011) · cites this paper as [7]
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“It is proposed [Feinberg, 1978; Ford et al., 2007; Frith, 1992] that a malfunction of the corollary discharge system to underlies the failure to recognize self-produced verbal fragments [Whitford et al.”
BackgroundSensory prediction errors in the continuum of psychosis
Randeniya, R., Oestreich, L. K. L., & Garrido, M. I. (2018) · Schizophrenia Research · doi:10.1016/j.schres.2017.04.019 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
“Patients with schizophrenia demonstrate deficits in prediction of both external stimuli (Erickson et al., 2016; Fisher et al., 2012; Todd et al., 2008) and selfgenerated stimuli (Ford et al., 2007a; Ford and Mathalon, 2012; Ford et al., 2014).”
BackgroundInfluentialHoffman, R. E., Varanko, M., Gilmore, J., & Mishara, A. L. (2008) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291707002395 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
“…support models of AVHs postulating activation involving the auditory cortex or adjacent cortical areas (David, 1994; Dierks et al. 1999 ; Hubl et al. 2007), or corollary discharge failures causing disinhibition of sensory qualities of inner speech (Feinberg & Guazzelli, 1999 ; Ford et al. 2007).”
BackgroundInfluentialFord, J., Mathalon, D., Roach, B., Keedy, S., Reilly, J., Gershon, E., & Sweeney, J. (2013) · Schizophrenia bulletin · doi:10.1093/schbul/sbs129 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Self-citationThe corollary discharge in humans is related to synchronous neural oscillations
Chen, C.-M. A., Mathalon, D. H., Roach, B. J., Cavus, I., Spencer, D. D., & Ford, J. M. (2011) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn.2010.21589 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
“Indeed, previous work from our laboratory using scalp-recorded electrophysiological responses (Ford et al., 2007) suggests that a copy of the speech plan precedes speech onset and may work to dampen the auditory cortical response to that speech in healthy participants.”
BackgroundSelf-citationDeficient multisensory integration in schizophrenia: An event-related potential study
Stekelenburg, J. J., Maes, J. P., Gool, A. R. V., Sitskoorn, M. M., & Vroomen, J. (2013) · Schizophrenia Research · doi:10.1016/j.schres.2013.04.038 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
“In line with this, it has been reported that the dampening of the auditory N1 observed in control subjects to self-initiated sounds was not evident in patients with schizophrenia (Ford et al., 2007).”
Oestreich, L., Mifsud, N. G., Ford, J. M., Roach, B. J., Mathalon, D. H., & Whitford, T. J. (2015) · International Journal of Psychophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2015.05.014 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
“The protocol for the Talk and Listen conditions were based on the previously published protocol by Ford et al. (2010), while the protocol for the Cued Listen condition was a refinement of the protocol used by Ford et al. (2007a).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialSelf-citationFunctional connectivity studies of patients with auditory verbal hallucinations
Hoffman, R. E., & Hampson, M. (2012) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2012.00006 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
“…of inner speech misidentified as non-self-due to a disruption of frontotemporal efference copy projections that ordinarily signal to sensory systems that actions (and thought) are self-generated (Feinberg, 1978; Frith and Done, 1988; Ford et al., 2007; HeinksMaldonado et al., 2007; Jones, 2010).”
BackgroundPerez, V. B., Ford, J. M., Roach, B. J., Loewy, R. L., Stuart, B. K., Vinogradov, S., & Mathalon, D. H. (2011) · Schizophrenia Bulletin · doi:10.1093/schbul/sbr124 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Self-citationBenetti, S., Pettersson-Yeo, W., Allen, P., Catani, M., Williams, S. C. R., Barsaglini, A., Kambeitz-Ilankovic, L. M., McGuire, P., & Mechelli, A. (2013) · Schizophrenia bulletin · doi:10.1093/schbul/sbt172 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Butler, P. D., Chen, Y., Ford, J. M., Geyer, M. A., Silverstein, S. M., & Green, M. F. (2011) · Schizophrenia Bulletin · doi:10.1093/schbul/sbr106 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
“been suggested that synchrony of neural activity (in the gamma or beta range) preceding the action may be the instantiation of the efference copy being sent from motor to sensory areas.(15) Whether it reflects the motor command or the efference copy itself, the neural activity”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationAltered oscillatory alpha and theta networks in schizophrenia
Basar-Eroglu, C., Schmiedt‐Fehr, C., Marbach, S., Brand, A., & Mathes, B. (2008) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2008.06.114 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
“While patients elicit se locking particularly at anterior locations for the VEP studies reported that the cognitive deficits are attributable to schizophrenia itself rather than medication (Gallinat et al., 2004; Goldberg et al., 1993).”
Corollary Discharge Dysfunction in Schizophrenia: Evidence for an Elemental Deficit
Mathalon, D. H., & Ford, J. M. (2008) · Clinical EEG and Neuroscience · doi:10.1177/155005940803900212 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Self-citationThe function and failure of sensory predictions
Bansal, S., Ford, J. M., & Spering, M. (2018) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1111/nyas.13686 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Self-citationSultan, F. A., & Sweatt, J. D. (2013) · Advances in experimental medicine and biology · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-8289-5_6 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Alterations of agency in hypnosis: A new predictive coding model.
Martin, J.-R., & Pacherie, E. (2019) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/rev0000134 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Dickerson, D., Overeem, K. A., Wolff, A. R., Williams, J. M., Abraham, W. C., & Bilkey, D. K. (2014) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/tp.2014.64 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Mathalon, D., Roach, B., Ferri, J., Loewy, R., Stuart, B. K., Perez, V., Trujillo, T. H., & Ford, J. (2018) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291718002659 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
“ERP studies have demonstrated that patients with schizophrenia show less suppression of the auditory N1 in response to self-generated vocalization than healthy controls (HCs) (Ford et al., 2001, 2007b; Mathalon and Ford, 2008; Perez et al., 2012).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialSelf-citationBachiller, A., Poza, J., Gómez, C., Molina, V., Suazo, V., & Hornero, R. (2014) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2560/12/1/016007 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Impaired action self-monitoring in schizophrenia patients with auditory hallucinations
Gawęda, Ł., Woodward, T. S., Moritz, S., & Kokoszka, A. (2013) · Schizophrenia Research · doi:10.1016/j.schres.2012.12.003 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
“Hyperactivity of superior temporal gyrus (STG), a region involved in speech perception, has been proposed to account for “over-perception” of inner-speech (Ford et al., 2007; Allen et al., 2008; Rapin et al., 2012), enriching vividness of perceptual features associated with inner dialogue (e.”
BackgroundSpeaking-Induced Suppression of the Auditory Cortex in Humans and Its Relevance to Schizophrenia
Whitford, T. J. (2019) · Biological Psychiatry Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging · doi:10.1016/j.bpsc.2019.05.011 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
The Cognitive Neuropsychology of Auditory Hallucinations: A Parallel Auditory Pathways Framework
Badcock, J. C. (2008) · Schizophrenia Bulletin · doi:10.1093/schbul/sbn128 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Aberrant resting-state connectivity in non-psychotic individuals with auditory hallucinations
Diederen, K. M. J., Neggers, S. F. W., de Weijer, A. D., van Lutterveld, R., Daalman, K., Eickhoff, S. B., Clos, M., Kahn, R. S., & Sommer, I. E. (2012) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291712002541 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
“…to consist of dysfunctional connectivity between frontal and superior temporal regions involved in the production and perception of language (Frith et al. 1995 ; McGuire & Frith, 1996 ; Spence et al. 2000 ; Allen et al. 2007 ; Ford et al. 2007 ; Heinks-Maldonado et al. 2007 ; Shergill et al. 2007).”
BackgroundHallucinations both in and out of context: An active inference account
Benrimoh, D. A., Parr, T., Adams, R. A., & Friston, K. J. (2019) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0212379 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
The Neurophysiology of Auditory Hallucinations – A Historical and Contemporary Review
van Lutterveld, R., Sommer, I. E., & Ford, J. M. (2011) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2011.00028 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Self-citationAbnormal connectivity between attentional, language and auditory networks in schizophrenia
Liemburg, E. J., Vercammen, A., Horst, G. J. T., Ćurĉić‐Blake, B., Knegtering, H., & Aleman, A. (2012) · Schizophrenia Research · doi:10.1016/j.schres.2011.12.003 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
“, 2010), and reduced synchrony during the prespeech phase (Ford et al., 2007) in people with schizophrenia, particularly in those withAVH.”
Role of N-Methyl D-aspartate receptors in action-based predictive coding deficits in schizophrenia
Kort, N. S., Ford, J. M., Roach, B. J., Gunduz-Bruce, H., Krystal, J. H., Jaeger, J., Reinhart, R. M. G., & Mathalon, D. H. (2017) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2016.06.019 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
“Many prior electroencephalographic (EEG) studies found that patients with schizophrenia exhibit reduced suppression of auditory cortical responses, specifically the N1 component of the auditory event-related brain potential (ERP), to self-produced speech sounds (14, 23-25, 40-42).”
Self-citationGallagher, S. (2014) · Review of Philosophy and Psychology · doi:10.1007/s13164-014-0222-3 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
“First, neuroscientific studies support the idea that at least some of the neural processes related to SA are processes that underpin either motor control processes or very basic timing mechanisms that would affect not only movement, but also speaking and thinking; and these processes have been shown to involve abnorma…”
BackgroundImplicit Timing as the Missing Link between Neurobiological and Self Disorders in Schizophrenia?
Giersch, A., Lalanne, L., & Isope, P. (2016) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2016.00303 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
“Abnormal corollary discharges have also been suggested for eye movements (Thakkar et al., 2015), speech (Ford et al., 2007) and even simple tones (Ford et al., 2014).”
BackgroundInfluentialStudying auditory verbal hallucinations using the RDoC framework
Ford, J. M. (2016) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/psyp.12457 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Self-citationFisher, D. J., Smith, D., Labelle, A., & Knott, V. (2014) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2014.05.005 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Cortical Suppression to Delayed Self-Initiated Auditory Stimuli in Schizotypy
Oestreich, L., Mifsud, N. G., Ford, J. M., Roach, B. J., Mathalon, D. H., & Whitford, T. J. (2015) · Clinical EEG and Neuroscience · doi:10.1177/1550059415581708 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Self-citationDiminished auditory sensory gating during active auditory verbal hallucinations
Thoma, R. J., Meier, A. M., Houck, J. M., Clark, V. P., Lewine, J. D., Turner, J. A., Calhoun, V. D., & Stephen, J. M. (2017) · Schizophrenia Research · doi:10.1016/j.schres.2017.01.023 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
“Diminished auditory sensory 17.01.023 Ford et al. (2001, 2007, 2012), suggests that AVH arise from an impaired ability to correctly label auditory verbal processing as either internally self-generated, or as externally generated.”
BackgroundInfluentialGómez‐Pilar, J., Poza, J., Bachiller, A., Gómez, C., Nùñez, P., Lubeiro, A., Molina, V., & Hornero, R. (2017) · International Journal of Neural Systems · doi:10.1142/s0129065717500320 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Frühholz, S., & Schweinberger, S. R. (2020) · Progress in Neurobiology · doi:10.1016/j.pneurobio.2020.101948 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Abnormal processing of emotional prosody in Williams syndrome: An event-related potentials study
Pinheiro, A. P., Galdo‐Álvarez, S., Rauber, A. S., Sampaio, A., Niznikiewicz, M. A., & Gonçalves, Ó. F. (2010) · Research in Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2010.09.011 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Whitford, V., O'Driscoll, G. A., Pack, C. C., Joober, R., Malla, A., & Titone, D. (2013) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: General · doi:10.1037/a0028062 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Attention effects on sensory gating — Intracranial and scalp recordings
Rosburg, T., Trautner, P., Elger, C. E., & Kurthen, M. (2009) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.06.063 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
“Alternatively, this amplitude reduction might be regarded as consequence of corollary discharge in the sensory cortex (Ford et al., 2007).”
BackgroundConsequences matter: Self‐induced tones are used as feedback to optimize tone‐eliciting actions
Neszmélyi, B., & Horváth, J. (2017) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/psyp.12845 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
“It has been previously suggested (Ford et al., 2007, 2008) that actions are preceded by neural activity reflecting the instantiation of the efference copy produced by the motor system, which is sent to sensory areas to predict the sensory consequences of the action.”
Efference Copy, Corollary Discharge, Predictive Coding, and Psychosis
Ford, J. M., & Mathalon, D. H. (2019) · Biological Psychiatry Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging · doi:10.1016/j.bpsc.2019.07.005 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Self-citationVoice-selective prediction alterations in nonclinical voice hearers
Pinheiro, A. P., Schwartze, M., & Kotz, S. A. (2018) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-018-32614-9 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Zhang, M., Force, R. B., Walker, C. P. R., Ahn, S., Jarskog, L. F., & Frӧhlich, F. (2022) · Schizophrenia · doi:10.1038/s41537-022-00321-0 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Gómez‐Pilar, J., Poza, J., Bachiller, A., Gómez, C., Molina, V., & Hornero, R. (2015) · Entropy · doi:10.3390/e17085241 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“Thus, following these previous studies, it can be inferred that evoked response produced an increase in the concentration of low-frequency power (mainly around theta band [49]) at the expense of alpha and higher frequencies during the response window [42,48,51].”
BackgroundNeuroimaging of Voice Hearing in Non-Psychotic Individuals: A Mini Review
Diederen, K., van Lutterveld, R., & Sommer, I. (2012) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2012.00111 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“, 2007), dysfunctional connectivity of frontal and temporoparietal language regions (Frith et al., 1995; Spence et al., 2000; Ford et al., 2007; Kühn and Gallinat, 2010), decreases in psychophysiological measures of effortful attention (Havermans et al.”
BackgroundInfluentialNeuroscience‐informed computer‐assisted cognitive training in schizophrenia
Fisher, M., Herman, A. B., Stephens, D. B., & Vinogradov, S. (2016) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1111/nyas.13042 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
“110,128 133 In our work, we have found that high-gamma activity in temporal and prefrontal cortices correlates with auditory working memory in both healthy subjects and patients with schizophrenia.”
BackgroundSensorimotor Induction of Auditory Misattribution in Early Psychosis
Salomon, R., Progin, P., Griffa, A., Rognini, G., Kim, Q., Conus, P., Marchesotti, S., Bernasconi, F., Hagmann, P., Serino, A., et al. (2019) · Schizophrenia Bulletin · doi:10.1093/schbul/sbz136 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Cerebellar circuitry and auditory verbal hallucinations: An integrative synthesis and perspective
Pinheiro, A. P., Schwartze, M., & Kotz, S. A. (2020) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.08.004 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Zhang, Y., Zheng, J., Fan, X., Guo, X., Guo, W., Yang, G., Chen, H., Zhao, J., & Lv, L. (2015) · Schizophrenia Research · doi:10.1016/j.schres.2015.07.031 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Yamaguchi, S., Shiozawa, T., Matsunaga, A., Bernick, P. J., Sawada, U., Taneda, A., Osumi, T., & Fujii, C. (2020) · Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences · doi:10.1017/s2045796020000256 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
“This model proposes that the sense of agency can emerge when a prediction of sensory consequence that is implicitly produced based on an efference copy of motor commands matches the actual sensory consequence (Frith et al., 2000).”
BackgroundAssociation between symptoms of psychosis and reduced functional connectivity of auditory cortex
Oertel‐Knöchel, V., Knöchel, C., Matura, S., Stäblein, M., Prvulovic, D., Maurer, K., Linden, D. E. J., & van de Ven, V. G. (2014) · Schizophrenia Research · doi:10.1016/j.schres.2014.10.036 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Discovery and development of integrative biological markers for schizophrenia
Oertel‐Knöchel, V., Bittner, R. A., Knöchel, C., Prvulovic, D., & Hampel, H. J. (2011) · Progress in Neurobiology · doi:10.1016/j.pneurobio.2011.05.006 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
“They could offer a parsimonious explanation for important aspects of the clinical phenotype such as hallucinations (Ford et al., 2007; Heinks-Maldonado et al., 2007).”
Lavigne, K. M., & Woodward, T. S. (2017) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.23934 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Sensory Attenuation in the Auditory Modality as a Window Into Predictive Processing
Kiepe, F., Kraus, N., & Hesselmann, G. (2021) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2021.704668 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Swiney, L., & Sousa, P. (2014) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2014.00675 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
- Authors
- Ford, J. M., Roach, B. J., Faustman, W. O., & Mathalon, D. H.
- Affiliations
- VA Connecticut Healthcare System (US)
- Venue
- American Journal of Psychiatry
- Published
- 2007-03
- Volume
- 164
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 458-466
- ISSN
- 0002-953X (ISSN-L)
- 1535-7228
- OpenAlex
- W2014504186
- Semantic Scholar
- d5578f7ae1c175a0e407e33e7036a0549403a43c
- Cited by
- 245
- References
- 40
- Citations by year
- 2026: 8 · 2025: 12 · 2024: 11 · 2023: 7 · 2022: 11 · 2021: 10 · 2020: 10 · 2019: 7 · 2018: 7 · 2017: 12 · 2016: 13 · 2015: 12 · 2014: 14 · 2013: 13 · 2012: 24
- FWCI
- 11.86
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- American Journal of Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (5r01mh058262-17)
- National Institute of Mental Health (MH067967, K02MH067967, MH-58262, R01MH-058262)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Schizophrenia research and treatment
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Hallucinations in medical conditions
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural dynamics and brain function
- Keywords
- auditory hallucinations, schizophrenia, forward model, sensory suppression, N1 event-related potential, phase coherence, schizoaffective disorder, positive symptoms
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Auditory Cortex, Auditory Perception, Cortical Synchronization, Electroencephalography, Evoked Potentials, Auditory, Female, Hallucinations, Humans, Male, Models, Neurological, Schizophrenia, Schizophrenic Psychology, Speech, Speech Perception
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