The Malleability of Automatic Stereotypes and Prejudice

“As a result, it should not be surprising that correlations between implicit and explicit measures are heterogeneous (Blair, 2002; Fazio & Olson, 2003) and moderated by factors such as self-presentation concerns (Nosek, 2005).”

“Low test-retest reliabilities can also be theoretically meaningful, reflecting the tendency for implicit measures to tap into implicit cognitive or affective states rather than stable traits to a certain extent (Blair, 2002).”

“The Role of Affect To explain discriminating behaviors, social psychological research has focused mainly on social cognitive processes and concepts, such as categorization and stereotyping (see Blair, 2002).”

“As such, children might benefit from interventions aimed at changing parents’ implicit attitudes (Blair, 2002; Gawronski, Deutsch, Mbirkou, Seibt, & Strack, 2008; Kawakami, Phills, Steele, & Dovidio, 2007; Rudman, Ashmore, & Gary, 2001).”

“Of great interest are behavioral studies that demonstrate variation in implicit attitudes as a function of social context and the goals and motivations of the participant (Blair, 2002).”

“, Blair, I.V., Chapleau, K.M. (2004). Automatic stereotypes vs.”

“Existing research suggests that diversity training that focuses on education through disconfirming stereotypes (Blair 2002; Rudman et al. 2001) and increasing awareness of implicit bias (Carnes et al.”

“…that exposure to a category representation, whether it be an actual ingroup or outgroup member, a photograph, or a category label, is sufficient to activate associated conceptual characteristics (Blair, 2002; Blair & Banaji, 1996; Kawakami & Dovidio, 2001; Macrae, Bodenhausen, & Milne, 1995).”

“…such as the context-dependent nature of White participants' implicit bias towards Blacks, and has often made use of strong manipulations, including anti-bias interventions or visual imagery (Blair, 2002; Kawakami, Dovidio, Moll, Hermsen, & Russin, 2000; Kawakami, Phills, Steele, & Dovidio, 2005).”

“…for the context-dependence of implicit evaluations (e.g., Blair, Ma, & Lenton, 2001; Dasgupta & Greenwald, 2001; Ferguson & Wojnowicz, 2011; Wittenbrink, Judd, & Park, 2001; see Blair, 2002, for a review) does not address the topic of how easily implicit evaluations can reflect new information.”

“…respect to priming manipulations, exposure to admired Blacks and disliked Whites (Dasgupta & Greenwald, 2001), violent and misogynistic rap music (Rudman & Lee, 2002), and vividly imagining heroic women (Blair, Ma, & Lenton, 2001) have modified implicit associations (see Blair, 2002, for a review).”

“Laboratory research in social psychology shows that implicit bias is potentially malleable and does respond to changes in situational cues and social norms.(42) These TABLE 2—Levels of Implicit and Explicit Ethnic/Racial Bias Among PCPs”

“More recent research has suggested some meaningful variability (Blair, 2002; Devine et al., 2002) and opportunities for altering the content of those implicit stereotypes (e.”

“bias, down to the level of perceptual processes (Barden et al. 2004; Blair 2002; Bargh 1999).”

“Implicit bias is modifiable in experimental settings using counterstereotyping exercises; however, these methods have not been applied in a clinical setting.(61) Furthermore, changing bias among all healthcare professionals is an ambitious task.”

“For instance, allies can engage in a variety of cognitive techniques to reduce their own implicit bias such as disassociating stereotypic information with stigmatized individuals, recalling favorable counterstereotypes, and practicing mindfulness (Blair, 2002; Lueke & Gibson, 2016).”

“Between the publication of a literature review by Blair (2002) and a collection of 17 experimental studies by Lai et al. (2014), empirical findings from studies of implicit-bias-reducing interventions were widely interpreted as supporting a conclusion that implicit biases are malleable (meaning…”

“The plausibility of the latter assumption has been weakened in hypothesized to allow relatively little deliberative post-processing, show great malleability (e.g., Blair, 2002).”

“Recently, many researchers have reported that automatic attitudes or stereotypes are malleable (see Blair, 2002, for a review). We explore whether implicit attitudes toward this particular ethno-religious group can be moderated, as exhibited in other studies. As previously mentioned, the literature on attitudes toward…”

“There are many instances of such effects in the social psychology literature (see Blair, 2002; Dijksterhuis & Bargh, 2001; Wheeler & DeMaree, 2009 for reviews).”

“After all, a major contribution of social-psychological theory has been the demonstration of short-term malleability or “context effects” on attitudes (e.g., Blair, 2002; Schwarz, 2007).”

“Even if implicit stereotypes are in place, they are not invariant (Blair, 2002; Gawronski & Bodenhausen, 2006).”

“…through the use of automatic, nonintentional methods to reduce automatic, nonintentional stereotyping (e.g., Araya, Akrami, Ekehammar, & Hedlund, 2002; Clerkin & Teachman, 2010; Olson & Fazio, 2006; for reviews, see Blair, 2002; Hertel & Mathews, 2011; Paluck & Green, 2009; Shalev & Bargh, 2011).”

“Indeed, automatic responses are not immutable and rigid, but they are sensitive to the characteristics of the context as well as other characteristics, such as the perceiver’s goals and focus of attention (Blair, 2002).”

“Social psychological research on motivational approaches to prejudice reduction informs us that negation training, emphasis on self-enhancement goals, and motivation to appear nonprejudiced can curb or change even implicit prejudice (Blair, 2002; Stewart & Payne, 2008).”

“Inpatriate stereotyping and stigmatization can be moderated by various events including home-country managers’: (1) motivation to form and maintain positive intercultural relationships; (2) efforts to promote counter-stereotypes; (3) focus of attention; and (4) contextual cues (Blair, 2002).”

“Extensive social psychology research confirms that attitudes, even stereotypical and negative ones, are contextually dependent.(24) Never-”

“For example, they are sensitive to context and conditioning, just as attitudes and prejudice are (Blair, 2002; Fazio & Olson, 2003).”

“With the advent of the twenty-first century, new research from several research laboratories including mine began to challenge assumptions about the immutability of implicit attitudes (for reviews, see Blair, 2002; Dasgupta, 2009; Gawronski & Bodenhausen, 2006).”

“Specifically, while extant research has shown that brief exposure to counterstereotypic individuals decreases implicit bias on average (Blair, 2002; Dasgupta, in press), it has not examined whether the effectiveness of these situations depends on individual differences among perceivers, such as…”

“…Blacks, women, gays, or the elderly) is also at odds with the finding that more or less all attitudes, beliefs, and stereotypes are context-specific (Blair, 2002; Wigboldus et al., 2003; Casper et al., 2010, 2011; Kornadt and Rothermund, 2011, 2015; Müller and Rothermund, 2012; Gawronski and…”

“…individuals do not automatically rely on feminine stereotypes when making a judgment about a woman; but rather, stereotype reliance depends on the reliance and salience of a particular stereotype to a decision-making task (Kunda and Spencer 2003; Brewer 1988; Sinclair and Kunda 1999; Blair 2002).”

“…thought to be an inevitable consequence of the perception of others (Allport, 1954), but recent work has sought evidence for the avoidable nature of categorization in the hopes that this could mitigate prejudice (e.g., Blair, 2002; Kurzban, Tooby, & Cosmides, 2001; Macrae & Bodenhausen, 2000 ).”

“As one would expect of such a dispute, the views expressed by the opposing camps were decidedly polarized (see Bargh, 1999; Blair, 2002; Macrae & Bodenhausen, 2000).”

“However, it is possible that implicit attitudes change in a non-linear fashion, and instead, suddenly change once a certain threshold is reached (Blair, 2002).”

“Second, the IAT has good psychometric properties, including adequate stability across time (e.g., Greenwald et al., 1998; Greenwald & Farnham, 2000; but see Blair, 2002; Dasgupta & Asgari, 2004, for situational influences on IAT scores).”

“Given the sheer volume of studies, there is little doubt that Blair’s (2002) conclusion about the malleability of implicit social cognition is correct.”

“These data are consistent with other research showing flexibility in response to priming (e.g., Blair, 2002; Sinclair, Lowery, Hardin, & Colangelo, 2005), but, at the same time, our study goes beyond this earlier work by showing, for the first time, the influence of the person’s physical…”

“While implicit bias, as measured by the IAT, appears to be an individual difference to some extent, it is also prone to situational influences (Blair, 2002).”

“This is why we label the opposite of self-alienation ‘self-attunement’ rather than ‘self-awareness’: Awareness implies a conscious process (Blair, 2002).”

“That is, implicit affective experiences are not fixed, but can be changed based on situational factors and other boundary conditions (Blair, 2002).”

“…© 2007 by the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, Inc. 96 Extensive work has documented that the concepts, attitudes, and goals that are associated with stimuli are effortlessly and automatically activated on exposure to that stimuli (e.g., Bargh, 1990; Blair, 2002; Devine, 2001).”

“Whereas previous research has often inferred categorical and individuation processes based on downstream consequences such as the activation of stereotypes, affective responses, negative evaluations, and discrimination (Bargh, 1999; Blair, 2002; Devine, 1989; Kawakami, Dovidio, & Dijksterhuis, 2003; Kawakami et al., 2…”

“While there is now considerable evidence that automatic associations are malleable (see Blair, 2002), we still assume that sustained change in automatic associations (as opposed to temporary shifts) requires a fair amount of practice of new associations.”

“Contextual variation has recently sparked much interest, with several clear experimental demonstrations that even implicit attitudes vary with context (Blair, 2002; Mitchell, Nosek, & Banaji, 2003).”

“Although individuals have limited conscious awareness or control of these attitudes, a growing body of research has begun to show that they are responsive to the apparent beliefs of individuals in one’s social context (Blair, 2002; Devine, 2001; Lowery et al., 2001).”

“However, even automatically activated prejudicial responses can be suppressed under appropriate situational and motivational circumstances (Blair, 2002; Devine & Monteith, 1999) The current study explores the role of media literacy training and counter-stereotypical media exemplars in decreasing prejudicial responses.”

“Copyright # 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Accepted 9 December 2004 individuals or situations; their malleability has been extensively investigated and proved by using cognitive techniques like IAT, primed Stroop task, sequential priming and word completion tasks (Blair, 2002).”

“Recent research has challenged the dual-process assumption that implicit prejudice is impervious to change by demonstrating that it can be reduced or even reversed by social context (reviewed in Blair, 2002).”

“(2001), dissociations of this kind bear on two issues of considerable debate: (a) the extent to which the automatic activation of attitudes is malleable (Blair, 2001) and in particular goal-dependent and (b) whether the processing of evaluative information must be assumed to differ from cognitive processing.”

“For example, some studies have suggested that the presence of pictures depicting counter‐stereotypical exemplars reduces negative biases (Blair, 2002).”

“Nevertheless, the results of both studies are at odds with the evidence for a strong dependence of attitude- and stereotype-IATs on situational manipulations (see Blair, 2002, for an overview).”

“Automatic stereotyping and prejudice effects are not inevitable (Blair, 2002), a conclusion underscored by—for example—the discovery of individual differences that moderate automatic stereotyping effects (e.g., motivations to control prejudice, Amodio, Harmon-Jones, & Devine, 2003; Devine, Plant,…”

“Pengukuran melalui cara ini memerlukan kontrol penuh partisipan dan partisipan dapat mengendalikan proses pengambilan keputusan untuk menekan perilaku prasangka dan stereotyping (lihat Bargh dkk., 1996; Blair, 2002; Hebl dkk., 2002).”

“There is some evidence that counter-stereotype exemplars can counteract both implicit biases and stereotype threat (Blair, 2002).”

“Although researchers have very thoroughly investigated the malleability of automatic stereotype activation (Blair, 2002) and the reduction of implicit bias (e.”

“This line of research has shown that people base their expectations about unknown members of outgroups on the perceptions they have about that group in general until more knowledge about the individual person becomes available (Blair, 2002).”

“Blair, I. V. (2002).”

“However, implicit attitude measures (De Houwer, 2006) as well as implicit attitudes are malleable (Blair, 2002); the one and only attitude does not exist because attitudes are context-dependent evaluations.”

“Moreover, the present research shows that evaluatively heterogeneous representations, based on different experiences across different contexts, may be responsible for the high context sensitivity of automatic evaluations in previous research (see Blair, 2002; Gawronski & Bodenhausen, 2006, for reviews). Specifically,…”

“…it would seem that there are a dizzying number of demonstrations in the literature of implicit evaluations appearing to be highly malleable in response to features of the current context or one’s current goals (for review, see Blair, 2002; Ferguson & Fukukura, 2012; Gawronski & Sritharan, 2010).”

“category–based manner (Bargh, 1999; Blair, 2002; Bodenhausen & Macrae, 1998; Greenwald & Banaji, 1995).”

“Importantly, however, previous research has repeatedly and convincingly demonstrated that the explicit process of imagination has the power to enhance opinion effects of content in implicit memory (Blair 2002).”

“…Whites (Greenwald et al., 1998; Kawakami, Dion, & Dovidio, 1998; Kawakami & Dovidio, 2001), a number of strategies exist that can successfully reduce these types of negative implicit racial associations (Blair, 2002; Kawakami et al., 2000; Kawakami, Phills, et al., 2007; Wittenbrink et al., 2001).”

“…when we intentionally want to control our perceptions of others, for example, to suppress unwanted stereotypes because of conflicting personal value commitments to equality (Amodio and Devine 2010; Amodio and Swencionis 2018; Blair 2002; Devine 1989; Eberhardt 2019; Macrae and Bodenhausen 2000).”

“However, there is increasing evidence that implicit attitudes can be malleable in response to various motivational and contextual influences (see Blair, 2002, for a review).”