The Malleability of Automatic Stereotypes and Prejudice

“Considerable recent research demonstrates that implicit measures also display some sensitivity to context (see Blair 2002 for a detailed review).”

“, M-consciousness; Block, 1995). On the other hand, the subjective criterion is more relaxed, and therefore it is easier to demonstrate SSA in terms of this criterion. The validity of an indirect-without-direct-effect data pattern as evidence for SSA is dependent on two conditions. The direct measure must detect consc…”

“A number of “(un)consciousness-raising” strategies (Banaji 2001, p. 136) aim to combat implicit prejudice through thought suppression, awareness, reconditioning, and control (see Blair 2002 for a review).”

“In response, the fi eld has witnessed an explosion of empirical efforts to reduce implicit biases (Blair, 2002).”

“However, the generality of these observations may be constrained by evidence for measurement order effects when situational or contextual factors are altered (Blair, 2002; Bosson et al., 2000).”

“Pre-exposure to information can influence IAT scores (Blair, 2002) and we hypothesize that the increase in implicit racial bias scores found in the study of Groom et al. (2009) was due not to embodiment, but to the pre-exposure of being placed into a situation that is known for race discrimination.”

“For example, when a Chinese woman is observed putting on makeup, gender but not Chinese identity is accessed automatically, whereas Chinese identity but not gender is accessed when she is observed using chopsticks (Blair 2002).”

“Although we expected similar effects for the IAT and the SES, the latter is a trait measure of self-esteem, which may have rendered it somewhat insensitive to the manipulations, compared with the IAT (which has shown contextual effects in the past; for a review, see Blair, 2002).”

“For instance, to examine the stereotype that women are more likely to study art than math, one can present faces of women as primes and ask participants to decide whether a target word refers to art or math. instructions (see Blair, 2002, for a review).”

“Though few studies have examined int rventions to reduce bias in providers, 525 research suggests that implicit bias is not a fixed trait but is malleable and can be changed with 526 deliberate effort (Blair, 2002).”

“…past few years more than 40 studies have accumulated that collectively demonstrate the sensi- tivity of automatic attitudes and beliefs, even those that typically operate without people s control, to a wide range of motivational, strategic, and contextual influences (for a review see Blair, 2002).”

“Although participants attending to race and gender both showed the explicit context-updating effects, the effect was larger for participants attending to race, F(1,34) = 9.”

“A related approach to the first category is creating experiences that bring to mind an idea or mindset that will indirectly affirm or counter one’s pre-existing associations (Blair, 2002).”

“This dominant view has changed over the past 15 years to one of implicit malleability, with many studies finding that implicit associations are sensitive to lab-based interventions (for reviews, see Blair, 2002; Gawronski & Bodenhausen, 2006; Lai, Hoffman, & Nosek, 2013).”

“The findings (see Blair, 2002 for a detailed review) revealed what has been viewed by some as a surprising sensitivity of implicit measures to immediate contextual factors and, hence, has raised questions about the relative stability versus malleability of automatically activated attitudes.”

“…spontaneously (cf. Bargh, 1999; Devine, 1989), it is now clear that such spontaneous stereotype activation is neither inevitable nor universal (cf. Blair, 2002); it depends on perceivers’ prejudice, goals, cognitive resources, and learned associations (Gilbert & Hixon, 1991; Kawakami, Dovidio,…”

“(For reviews, see Blair, 2002; Lai, Hoffman, & Nosek, 2013.)”

“Importantly, as a recent review by Blair (2002) has demonstrated, eVects of social contexts on responses to other people (including attitudes and stereotypes) extend to implicit measures (response times, priming tasks, IAT measures) as well as explicit (self-report) measures.”

“Even automatically activated prejudice and stereotypes can be inhibited when people are perceived more in terms of their particular qualities than primarily as members of social categories.(50) Interventions to reduce bias in provider judgment, behavior, and decision making should therefore promote the cognitive strat…”

“Finally, the sensitivity of implicit attitudes to priming effects (i.e., to the influence of contextual factors) has now been well established (Blair, 2002).”

“…KEE Social Justice Research [sjr] pp1205-sore-486738 April 29, 2004 22:39 Style file version Nov 28th, 2002 158 Dasgupta et al., 2001a; for a review see Blair, 2003), so too behaviors are also quite malleable depending on the extent to which awareness, control, and motivation are at play.”

“The results of the IAT are highly context specific, as much research shows [16].”

“However, individuals whose mental or physical environment is shaped by the involvement of a black experimenter rather than a white experimenter show less implicit racial bias (Blair, 2002; Lowery, Hardin, & Sinclair, 2001).”

“For example, here is Blair (2002) on beliefs as associations: “The second definitional issue that must be”

“Much empirical evidence also attests to the remarkable malleability of automatic attitudes (for a review, see Blair, 2002).”

“The existing literature on automatic attitude change does not suggest whether automatic attitudes are better viewed as stablebut-malleable representations or as contextually bound, online constructions (Blair, 2002).”

“Blair, I. V. (2002). The malleability of automatic stereotypes and”

“…factors that make egalitarianism more likely and its opposite, intergroup bias, less likely (e.g., Amodio et al., 2003, 2004, 2006, 2008; Blair, 2002; Dasgupta & Rivera, 2006; Devine et al., 2002; Dunton & Fazio, 1997; Fazio et al., 1995; Glaser & Knowles, 2008; Hofmann, Gschwendner,…”

“As mentioned earlier, a number of recent studies have demonstrated the malleability of implicit measures of attitudes (Blair, 2002).”

“Like other robust stereotypes (e.g., gender, race), it is difficult to change associations that are based on repeated experience; nonetheless, there should be some flexibility in when these stereotypes are applied, both by individuals and to particular fields or local contexts (e.g., Blair, 2002).”

“…in the face of evidence that (a) even implicitly measured stereotypes, less subject to intentional response biases, are highly context sensitive (Blair, 2002) and that (b) nonsocial concepts, for which social-desirability concerns are not an issue, are also context sensitive (Yeh & Barsalou,…”

“For instance, the specification of communication processes in the formal contract—such as the frequency, relevance, and timeliness of interactions—facilitates consistent knowledge exchange that reinforces positive evaluation of the partner’s faithfulness (Goo & Huang, 2009).”

“…differences in respondents’ moods, physical or cognitive states, or immediate prior experiences when they complete these measures, may alter respondents’ implicit self-esteem scores from one administration to the next (see Blair, 2002, for a review of context effects in implicit attitude measures).”

“Blair, I. V. (2002). The malleability of automatic stereotypes and prejudice.”

“However, a recent review (Blair, 2002) suggests that performance on the IAT may be more amenable to voluntary influence than expected.”

“Rather, it seems that automatic stereotype activation can be successfully overcome or at least signiWcantly reduced (for a review, see Blair, 2002).”

“…certain personality and behavioral tendencies that indirectly reveal his or her underlying low self-esteem (for research relevant to state, rather than trait, discrepancies between explicit and implicit evaluations, see Blair, 2002; DeHart, 2002; Jones et al., 2002; Karpinski & Hilton, 2001).”

“Studies of cognitive behavior indicate that presenting the biased party with counter-examples of the stereotype of interest can reduce the severity and/or frequency of the biased behavior (Stephanie A. Goodwin et al, 2000; Irene V. Blair, 2002).”

“This change was prompted by studies reporting shifts in implicit attitudes, stereotypes, and self-concepts in response to brief interventions, first reviewed by Blair (2002).”

“Additional counterevidence against the assumption that indirect measures assess highly stable representations comes from research demonstrating a high level of context sensitivity for these measures (for reviews, see Blair, 2002; Gawronski & Bodenhausen, 2006a).”

“In spite of it’s widely agreed upon name, it should be noted that the IAT compatibility effect reflects the outcome of both explicit and implicit associations (Blair 2002; Fiedler et al. 2006).”

“…were commonly assumed to be born of a lifetime of learning and to be thus virtually immutable (e.g., Devine, 1989), an emerging body of research suggests that they are quite malleable via a range of situational factors, mental strategies, and social motives (for a review, see Blair, 2002).”

“One potential technique for enhancing non-conscious regulation of physical activity is to strengthen automatic associations through evaluative conditioning (Blair, 2002; De Houwer et al., 2001; Hofmann, De Houwer, Perugini, Baeyens, & Crombez, 2010).”

“Unconscious biases are normal and rooted in stereotyping, a cognitive process in which individuals use a social category to acquire, process, and recall information about people.(24) This processing pattern functions unconsciously to help individuals organize complex information.”

“Strategies aimed at changing implicit attitudes and stereotypes about race and ethnicity include stimulating social desirability, suppression of known prejudices, and the promotion of counter-stereotypes.(40) Dasgupta and Greenwald(41) exposed individuals to counter-stereotypes, such as positive racialized exemplars (…”

“Several researchers attributed these effects to contextual variability in the associations activated by a given stimulus or category (Blair, 2002; Ferguson & Bargh, 2007; Gawronski & Bodenhausen, 2006).”

“This is both because the former is a continuous, objective, and quantifiable variable, whereas the latter is categorical (and increasingly subjective), and because implicit attitudes are thought to result from many sources beyond one’s own race, including environmental exposure (25) and personal interactions (26).”

“Because prejudice exists at the intersection of group stereotypes and the requirements of social roles, it is fundamentally responsive to social context (Blair, 2002).”

“A clear way to break down the stereotypes is to make sure that people are exposed to excellent women in philosophy ( Blair 2002 ; Kang and Banaji 2006 ).”

“We used the Implicit Association Test (IAT) to measure both stereotypes and self-concept because its sensitivity to context effects and predictive utility is well established (Blair, 2002; Greenwald, Poehlman, Uhlmann, & Banaji, 2009), and it is relatively free from social desirability bias and other types of distorti…”

“On the other hand, several studies show that implicit measures are sensitive to changes in context (e.g., Blair, 2002), procedural elements (e.g., Bluemke & Friese, 2006), and need states (Seibt, Häfner, & Deutsch, 2007).”

“Similarly, when individuals are highly motivated, or when they possess adequate cognitive resources (Blair 2002), they are often able to use controlled processes to inhibit the automatic application of a stereotype, even when they have knowledge of the stereotype.”

“Research has shown that many automatic processes are more malleable than once believed (Blair, 2002).”

“Recently, researchers have found that manipulation of the social context can moderate what was previously thought to be a ubiquitous automatic racial bias favoring the in-group (for a review, see Blair, 2002).”

“Recent research in social cognition has indicated that implicit associations may be more malleable than thought previously (for reviews, see Blair 2002; Wiers et al .”

“There are numerous other studies that demonstrate that implicit measures more generally are sensitive to changes in the measurement context (e.g., Blair, 2002).”

“The studies reviewed on the implicit assessment process provide clear evidence for the notion that implicitly assessed representations are subject to a variety of situational and extraneous influences (Blair, 2002).”

“…against women, defined as “ social judgments of individual group members that lead people to judge group members consistently, and in an exaggerated way, with group expectations ” (Lee and James 2007, p. 229), often unconsciously arise in the male community and are difficult to avoid (Blair 2002).”

“Whereas perceptions of warmth stem from whether one views a group as having the intent of causing harm or providing support, perceptions of competence derive from whether a group is viewed as having the ability to carry out their intentions (Cuddy, Fiske, and Glick 2007).”

“Recent work, however, has challenged the inevitability of this process (Blair, 2002; Macrae & Bodenhausen, 2000).”

“This may have increased motivations to appear non-prejudiced, which can have a small effect on implicit attitudes (27), but if participants had such motives, their explicit attitudes should have also shown decreases.”

“…of this argument states that racial cues such as relevant crime events can activate or deactivate often implicit racial predispositions (Gilliam and Iyengar 2000; Blair 2002; Fazio and Olson 2003; Quillian 2006; 4 AnAJS reviewer pointed to a similar situation from his/her own ethnographic research.”

“More generally, IAEs are largely dependent on information activated in the immediate context of judgment (e.g., Blair, 2002; Gawronski & Sritharan, 2010; Wittenbrink et al., 2001), depend on currently activated goals (Melnikoff & Bailey, 2017), and show low test–retest reliability when measured on…”

“13 Blair 2002, Kang and Banaji 2006. control prejudice (Moskowitz and Li).”

“Blair et al. (2001) showed that counter-stereotypic mental imagery resulted in weaker implicit stereotype activation compared to neutral mental imagery or no mental imagery.”

“Later research, however, found that implicit tests were malleable in response to mental imagery, shifts in attention and goals, salient exemplars, and other interventions (Blair, 2002; Dasgupta, 2013; Lai, Hoffman, & Nosek, 2013; Payne & Gawronski, 2010).”