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Brain corticosteroid receptor balance in health and disease
Abstract
In this review, we have described the function of MR and GR in hippocampal neurons. The balance in actions mediated by the two corticosteroid receptor types in these neurons appears critical for neuronal excitability, stress responsiveness, and behavioral adaptation. Dysregulation of this MR/GR balance brings neurons in a vulnerable state with consequences for regulation of the stress response and enhanced vulnerability to disease in genetically predisposed individuals. The following specific inferences can be made on the basis of the currently available facts. 1. Corticosterone binds with high affinity to MRs predominantly localized in limbic brain (hippocampus) and with a 10-fold lower affinity to GRs that are widely distributed in brain. MRs are close to saturated with low basal concentrations of corticosterone, while high corticosterone concentrations during stress occupy both MRs and GRs. 2. The neuronal effects of corticosterone, mediated by MRs and GRs, are long-lasting, site-specific, and conditional. The action depends on cellular context, which is in part determined by other signals that can activate their own transcription factors interacting with MR and GR. These interactions provide an impressive diversity and complexity to corticosteroid modulation of gene expression. 3. Conditions of predominant MR activation, i.e., at the circadian trough at rest, are associated with the maintenance of excitability so that steady excitatory inputs to the hippocampal CA1 area result in considerable excitatory hippocampal output. By contrast, additional GR activation, e.g., after acute stress, generally depresses the CA1 hippocampal output. A similar effect is seen after adrenalectomy, indicating a U-shaped dose-response dependency of these cellular responses after the exposure to corticosterone. 4. Corticosterone through GR blocks the stress-induced HPA activation in hypothalamic CRH neurons and modulates the activity of the excitatory and inhibitory neural inputs to these neurons. Limbic (e.g., hippocampal) MRs mediate the effect of corticosterone on the maintenance of basal HPA activity and are of relevance for the sensitivity or threshold of the central stress response system. How this control occurs is not known, but it probably involves a steady excitatory hippocampal output, which regulates a GABA-ergic inhibitory tone on PVN neurons. Colocalized hippocampal GRs mediate a counteracting (i.e., disinhibitory) influence. Through GRs in ascending aminergic pathways, corticosterone potentiates the effect of stressors and arousal on HPA activation. The functional interaction between these corticosteroid-responsive inputs at the level of the PVN is probably the key to understanding HPA dysregulation associated with stress-related brain disorders. 5. Fine-tuning of HPA regulation occurs through MR- and GR-mediated effects on the processing of information in higher brain structures. Under healthy conditions, hippocampal MRs are involved in processes underlying integration of sensory information, interpretation of environmental information, and execution of appropriate behavioral reactions. Activation of hippocampal GRs facilitates storage of information and promotes elimination of inadequate behavioral responses. These behavioral effects mediated by MR and GR are linked, but how they influence endocrine regulation is not well understood. 6. Dexamethasone preferentially targets the pituitary in the blockade of stress-induced HPA activation. The brain penetration of this synthetic glucocorticoid is hampered by the mdr1a P-glycoprotein in the blood-brain barrier. Administration of moderate amounts of dexamethasone partially depletes the brain of corticosterone, and this has destabilizing consequences for excitability and information processing. 7. The set points of HPA regulation and MR/GR balance are genetically programmed, but can be reset by early life experiences involving mother-infant interaction. 8. (ABSTRACT TRUNCATED)
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“While GRs are ubiquitously expressed throughout the brain, they are highly expressed in the hippocampus (De Kloet, Vreugdenhil, Oitzl, & Joels, 1998) and hypophysiotropic neurons of the PVN (Kovacs, Foldes, & Sawchenko, 2000; Sawchenko, 1987), two brain regions key to negative feedback.”
From Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal and hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axes: sex differences in regulation of stress responsivity (2017) · cites this paper as De Kloet, Vreugdenhil, Oitzl, & Joels, 1998
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“Low cortisol concentrations during SWS-rich sleep benefit declarative memory consolidation by preventing activation of glucocorticoid receptors that mediate an inhibitory influence on hippocampal LTP and output from CA1 (648, 649, 666).”
From About Sleep's Role in Memory (2013) · cites this paper as [649]
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“Mineralocorticoid receptors have a much higher affinity (Kd = 0.5 nM) for CORT than do GRs (Kd =5.0 nM) (De Kloet, Veldhuis, Wagenaars, & Bergink, 1984; De Kloet, Vreugdenhil, Oitzl, & Joels, 1998)”
From Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal and hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axes: sex differences in regulation of stress responsivity (2017) · cites this paper as De Kloet, Vreugdenhil, Oitzl, & Joels, 1998
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“Briefly, 11β-HSD type 1 generates the bioactive form (cortisol or corticosterone) from inactive 11-keto derivatives while 11β-HSD type 2 catalyzes the opposite reaction. Interestingly, 11-keto derivatives do not bind to CBG in plasma nor are expelled by the efflux pumps of the BBB. As a result, 11-keto-GCs reach the CNS more readily than the bioactive form. 11β-HSD type 1 is widely expressed by”
From The HPA – Immune Axis and the Immunomodulatory Actions of Glucocorticoids in the Brain (2014) · cites this paper as [66]
In the citing paper
“The binding affinity of cortisol is however 10-fold greater for the MR than the GR (66). MRs are thus heavily bound by basal/low levels of GCs while substantial ligation of GRs only occurs upon stress or when the highest ultraradian peaks are reached.”
From The HPA – Immune Axis and the Immunomodulatory Actions of Glucocorticoids in the Brain (2014) · cites this paper as [66]
In the citing paper
“CBG is a thermosensitive glycoprotein that binds up to 90% of circulating GCs in the bloodstream. The remaining 10% may also be associated to serum albumin. In consequence, the levels of free circulating GCs are usually about 5% (66, 67).”
From The HPA – Immune Axis and the Immunomodulatory Actions of Glucocorticoids in the Brain (2014) · cites this paper as [66]
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Metadata
- Authors
- de Kloet, E. R., Vreugdenhil, E., Oitzl, M. S., & Joëls, M.
- Affiliations
- Division of Medical Pharmacology (E.R.D.K., E.V., M.S.O.), Leiden/Amsterdam Center for Drug Research, University of Leiden, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands;
- Leiden University (NL)
- Institute for Neurobiology (M.J.), University of Amsterdam, 1098 SM Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Venue
- Endocrine Reviews
- Publisher
- The Endocrine Society
- Published
- 1998-06-01
- Volume
- 19
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 269-301
- ISSN
- 0163-769X (ISSN-L)
- 1945-7189
- OpenAlex
- W2171238991
- Cited by
- 2,614
- References
- 431
- Citations by year
- 2026: 11 · 2025: 38 · 2024: 53 · 2023: 60 · 2022: 69 · 2021: 74 · 2020: 78 · 2019: 70 · 2018: 60 · 2017: 90 · 2016: 86 · 2015: 99 · 2014: 139 · 2013: 128 · 2012: 132
- FWCI
- 8.12
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Endocrine Reviews (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- UvA-DARE (University of Amsterdam) (publishedVersion)
- Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- European Commission (BRST960179)
- Nederlandse Organisatie voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek
- Internationale Stichting Alzheimer Onderzoek
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Behavioral Neuroscience › Stress Responses and Cortisol
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neuroscience and Neuropharmacology Research
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Endocrinology › Estrogen and related hormone effects
- Keywords
- mineralocorticoid receptor, glucocorticoid receptor, corticosterone, hippocampal neurons, neuronal excitability, stress response, hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, paraventricular nucleus, GABAergic inhibition, adrenalectomy, circadian rhythm, gene expression regulation, neuroendocrine adaptation, limbic system
- MeSH terms
- Adrenal Cortex Hormones, Aging, Brain, Brain Diseases, Health, Humans, Receptors, Steroid, Stress, Physiological
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