CoChat
Sign Up
Cited by 70Extraction and Separation ProcessesElectric Vehicles and InfrastructureMining and Resource Management

Electric Vehicle Battery Supply Chain and Critical Materials: A Brief Survey of State of the Art

Open access
Barman, Pranjal, Dutta, Lachit, Azzopardi, Brian·2023·Energies
DOI 10.3390/en16083369
Open this paper in CoChat — free accountOpen PDF

Abstract

Electric vehicles (EVs) have been garnering wide attention over conventional fossil fuel-based vehicles due to the serious concerns of environmental pollution and crude oil depletion. In this article, we have conducted a systematic literature survey to explore the battery raw material supply chain, material processing, and the economy behind the commodity price appreciation. We present significant areas of concern, including resource reserves, supply, demand, geographical distribution, battery reuse, and recycling industries. Furthermore, details of the battery supply chain and its associated steps are illustrated. The authors believe the presented study will be an information cornerstone in boosting manufacturing and understanding the key components and materials required to facilitate EV battery production. Further, this study discusses the major industries, and their policies and global market share in each material category.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This survey synthesizes the state of the art on electric-vehicle lithium-ion battery chemistries, critical raw materials, supply chain stages, commodity price dynamics, and national industrial policies. It concludes that China dominates nearly every supply chain step, that cathode chemistry diversification (NMC/NCA vs. LFP) will shape future material demand, and that recycling, reuse, and new extraction technologies are needed to bridge supply–demand gaps.

Key findings

  • Lithium-ion battery consumption escalated more than forty-fold, from 11 GWh in 2015 to 460 GWh in 2023, with total capacity anticipated to exceed 800 GWh by end-2025; current LB demand is more than 350 GWh, over twice the 2020 level.
  • Nickel-based chemistries (NMC, NCA) held more than a 75% share of EV cathode materials in 2021 due to superior driving range, while LFP occupied nearly 25% of total market share, primarily in China; LFP has less than 35% of the energy density of NMC batteries.
  • Battery pack prices fell by more than 70% over the last six years, and the survey projects prices could fall to 73 USD/kWh by 2030 versus 240 USD/kWh at the time of writing; batteries account for roughly one-third of total EV expense.
  • Geographic concentration is severe: China holds 80% of global graphite supply, 70% of positive electrode materials and 85% of negative electrode material production capacity, and a 77% share of the global EV industry; the Democratic Republic of Congo contributes 70% of extracted cobalt, Australia supplies half of global lithium stock, and Indonesia has a 40% nickel concentration.
  • Global EV battery demand could be met by at least 30 giga-factories by 2030, requiring more than USD 120 billion in battery manufacturing investment; a BEV requires an average 55 kWh battery capacity and a PHEV 14 kWh, with China the leading consumer at 200 GWh in 2021.
  • Retired power lithium batteries worldwide are predicted to surpass 600 kt by end-2025; China leads battery recycling with about half the global 200 kt/year capacity.

Methods

  • Design: a systematic literature survey (review), not an experimental or modeling study; the authors state they bridge a gap in research on the supply chain of critical LB constituent materials for EVs.
  • Data: secondary sources only — peer-reviewed literature, the IEA Global EV Outlook 2022, industry reports, and market data; no primary data collection or sample is described.
  • Analysis: narrative synthesis organized into cathode chemistry, critical materials, commodity price appreciation, supply chain stages (mining, raw material processing, cell component manufacturing, pack production, re-use, recycling), global market leaders, and industrial policy outlook, supported by 13 figures and 2 tables.

Limitations

  • Stated by the paper: the authors acknowledge that "it is indeed challenging to cover every facet of battery supply dynamic," and that the future of battery chemistries is uncertain because of fluctuating market demand for critical resources and emerging alternative chemistries.
  • Evident from the text: the study relies entirely on secondary and industry sources with no primary data, modeling, or uncertainty quantification; several quantitative claims are attributed to figures rather than reproducible datasets.
  • Evident from the text: the provided full text contains extensive duplicated and garbled passages (repeated paragraphs, fragmented tables, and truncated figure captions), which limits verification of some reported figures and the completeness of Table 2's comparative battery technology analysis.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.3390/en16083369

Cites

67 of 67 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 61 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingnone given

    Solid-state batteries have low scalability.

    “Low scalability”
    • Also stated in: § 9. Conclusions · plain
      “Low scalability”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingnone given

    Sodium-ion batteries have low energy density.

    “Low energy density”
    • Also stated in: § 9. Conclusions · plain
      “Low energy density At present, inefficient for use in EVs”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingreasoning

    Sodium-ion batteries are at present inefficient for use in EVs.

    “At present, inefficient for use in EVs”
    • Also stated in: § 9. Conclusions · plain
      “Low energy density At present, inefficient for use in EVs”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingnone given

    Silicon anode lithium-ion batteries have enhanced energy density.

    “Enhanced energy density”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingnone given

    Ion-air batteries are large in size.

    “Large size Slow recharge”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 35
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 129
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 4

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    China is leading in battery demand for light-duty electric vehicles, followed by Europe and the USA.

    “It can be seen that China is leading in the battery demand for LDEVs followed by Europe and the USA.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Findingnone given

    Solid-state batteries are fireproof.

    “Fireproof”
    • Also stated in: § 9. Conclusions · plain
      “High package density Longevity Fireproof”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Findingnone given

    Solid-state batteries are sustainable.

    “Sustainability”
    • Also stated in: § 9. Conclusions · plain
      “Sustainability”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given

    Lithium sulfur batteries are efficient.

    “Efficient”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given

    Solid-state batteries have high package density.

    “High package density”
    • Also stated in: § 9. Conclusions · plain
      “High package density Longevity Fireproof”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given

    Solid-state batteries degrade over time.

    “Degradation over time”
    • Also stated in: § 9. Conclusions · plain
      “Degradation over time”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Findingnone given

    Solid-state batteries have low energy density.

    “Low energy density”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given

    Solid-state batteries have longevity.

    “Longevity”
    • Also stated in: § 9. Conclusions · plain
      “High package density Longevity Fireproof”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    Ion-air batteries have availability.

    “Availability”
    • Also stated in: § 9. Conclusions · plain
      “Highly affordable Availability Lasts longer Cheaper”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingnone given

    Organosilicon Electrolyte batteries have longevity.

    “Longevity”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given

    Silicon anode lithium-ion batteries have increase in mass.

    “Increase in Mass”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Findingnone given

    Metal Hydrogen batteries have high cost.

    “High Cost”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Findingnone given

    Silicon anode lithium-ion batteries increase in mass.

    “Impractical driving range Increase in Mass”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given

    Solid-state batteries are at present inefficient for use in EVs.

    “At present, inefficient”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingnone given

    Lithium sulfur batteries require less energy during production.

    “Less energy required during production”
    • Also stated in: § 9. Conclusions · plain
      “Less energy required during produc-”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given

    Ion-air batteries are cheaper.

    “Cheaper”
    • Also stated in: § 9. Conclusions · plain
      “Highly affordable Availability Lasts longer Cheaper”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Findingnone given

    Zinc-based batteries are non-toxic.

    “Non-toxic”
    • Also stated in: § 9. Conclusions · plain
      “High storage capacity Affordable Non-toxic Availability”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given

    Lithium Tungsten batteries have fast charging.

    “Fast charging”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    Zinc-based batteries have availability.

    “Availability”
    • Also stated in: § 9. Conclusions · plain
      “High storage capacity Affordable Non-toxic Availability”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given

    Metal Hydrogen batteries are light weight.

    “Light weight”
    • Also stated in: § 9. Conclusions · plain
      “Longevity Maintenance free Light weight”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Findingnone given

    Silicon anode lithium-ion batteries have an impractical driving range.

    “Impractical driving range Increase in Mass”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Findingnone given

    Organosilicon electrolyte batteries have a high initial cost.

    “High initial cost”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingnone given

    Cobalt free lithium-ion batteries have low efficiency.

    “Low efficiency”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given

    Ion-air batteries have slow recharge.

    “Slow recharge”
    • Also stated in: § 9. Conclusions · plain
      “Large size Slow recharge”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given

    Lithium sulfur batteries have availability.

    “Availability”
    • Also stated in: § 9. Conclusions · plain
      “Availability”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given

    Sodium-ion batteries perform better at low temperature.

    “Performs better at low temperature”
    • Also stated in: § 9. Conclusions · plain
      “Affordable Low fire risk Performs better at low temperature Recyclable”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Findingnone given

    Metal Hydrogen batteries are maintenance free.

    “Maintenance free”
    • Also stated in: § 9. Conclusions · plain
      “Longevity Maintenance free Light weight”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given

    Metal hydrogen batteries have a high rate of self-discharge.

    “High Cost High rate of self-discharge”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Organosilicon Electrolyte batteries are non-flammable and non-toxic.

    “Non-flammable and non-toxic”
    • Also stated in: § 9. Conclusions · plain
      “Non-flammable and non-toxic”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Lithium sulfur batteries are efficient, with four times more energy density.

    “Efficient, four times more energy den-sity”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Findingnone given

    Metal Hydrogen batteries have high rate of self-discharge.

    “High rate of self-discharge”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given

    Ion-air batteries last longer.

    “Lasts longer”
    • Also stated in: § 9. Conclusions · plain
      “Highly affordable Availability Lasts longer Cheaper”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given

    Sodium-ion batteries are recyclable.

    “Recyclable”
    • Also stated in: § 9. Conclusions · plain
      “Affordable Low fire risk Performs better at low temperature Recyclable”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given

    Lithium Tungsten batteries have production cost.

    “Production cost”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given

    Lithium tungsten batteries have production cost as a limitation.

    “Production cost”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given

    Silicon anode lithium-ion batteries offer enhanced energy density.

    “Enhanced energy density Cheaper”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given

    Lithium Tungsten batteries have efficient power usage.

    “Efficient power usage”
    • Also stated in: § 9. Conclusions · plain
      “Fast charging Efficient power usage”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given

    Zinc-based batteries are affordable.

    “Affordable”
    • Also stated in: § 9. Conclusions · plain
      “High storage capacity Affordable Non-toxic Availability”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given

    Ion-air batteries have large size.

    “Large size”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given

    Zinc-based batteries have high storage capacity.

    “High storage capacity”
    • Also stated in: § 9. Conclusions · plain
      “High storage capacity Affordable Non-toxic Availability”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given

    Sodium-ion batteries are affordable.

    “Affordable”
    • Also stated in: § 9. Conclusions · plain
      “Affordable Low fire risk Performs better at low temperature Recyclable”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given

    Metal Hydrogen batteries have longevity.

    “Longevity”
    • Also stated in: § 9. Conclusions · plain
      “Longevity Maintenance free Light weight”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Findingnone given

    LFP (lithium-ion phosphate) is a cobalt free battery.

    “LFP (lithium-ion phosphate) is cobalt free battery”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingnone given

    Lithium sulfur batteries have four times more energy density.

    “four times more energy density”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Findingnone given

    Cobalt free lithium-ion batteries are less expensive due to absence of cobalt.

    “Less expensive due to absence of cobalt.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given

    Lithium sulfur batteries have high corrosion.

    “High Corrosion”
    • Also stated in: § 9. Conclusions · plain
      “High Corrosion Low life”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Findingnone given

    Organosilicon Electrolyte batteries are environment friendly.

    “Environment friendly”
    • Also stated in: § 9. Conclusions · plain
      “Environment friendly”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Findingnone given

    An organosilicon electrolyte used as a co-solvent in lithium-ion batteries extends their longevity.

    “Co-solvent in lithium-ion”
    • Also stated in: § 9. Conclusions · plain
      “electrolyte to extend lon-”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given

    Zinc-based batteries suffer from several technical challenges, such as short circuit.

    “Suffers from several tech-nical challenges (like short circuit).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Findingnone given

    Silicon anode lithium-ion batteries have impractical driving range.

    “Impractical driving range”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given

    Cobalt-free lithium-ion batteries are less expensive due to the absence of cobalt.

    “Less expensive due to absence of co-balt.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given

    Lithium tungsten batteries enable fast charging.

    “Fast charging Efficient power usage”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given

    Lithium sulfur batteries have low life.

    “Low life”
    • Also stated in: § 9. Conclusions · plain
      “High Corrosion Low life”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given

    Sodium-ion batteries have low fire risk.

    “Low fire risk”
    • Also stated in: § 9. Conclusions · plain
      “Affordable Low fire risk Performs better at low temperature Recyclable”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Findingnone given

    Silicon anode lithium-ion batteries are cheaper.

    “Cheaper”
    • Also stated in: § 9. Conclusions · plain
      “Enhanced energy density Cheaper”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given

    Ion-air batteries are highly affordable.

    “Highly affordable”
    • Also stated in: § 9. Conclusions · plain
      “Highly affordable Availability Lasts longer Cheaper”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Findingnone given

    Organosilicon Electrolyte batteries have high initial cost.

    “High initial cost”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Presently the cost of batteries accounts for approximately one-third of the entire expense of an EV.

    “Presently the cost of batteries accounts for approximately one-third of the entire expense of an EV.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Lead-acid, nickel-metal hydride (NiMH), and lithium-ion batteries are among the existing battery types that have demonstrated superiority in EVs.

    “Lead-acid, nickel-metal hydride (NiMH), and most versatile lithium-ion batteries (LBs) are among the existing battery types that have demonstrated their superiority in EVs [8][9][10].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [8][9][10]

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisereasoning

    The price of battery packs fell by more than 70% over the last six years.

    “However, the price of battery packs fell by more than 70% over the last six years.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Because BEVs and PHEVs will control the majority of the EV market, lithium-ion batteries will probably be a significant component of the future generation of EVs.

    “Since BEVs and PHEVs will control the majority of the EV market, LBs will probably be a significant component of the future generation of EVs [14,15].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [14] Paul, 2011, Global Lithium Availability, J. Ind. Ecol. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [15] Bruno, 2010, Lithium Batteries: Status, Prospects and Future, J. Power Sources source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Fulfilling global EV battery demand requires an investment of more than 120 billion dollars solely for battery manufacturing.

    “It requires an investment of more than 120 billion dollars solely for battery manufacturing.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    A BEV requires an average of a 55 kWh battery capacity, and a PHEV requires a 14 kWh capacity.

    “A BEV requires an average of a 55kWh battery capacity, and a PHEV requires a 14kWh capacity.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Several alternate battery technologies such as metal-air and sodium-ion have evolved but are yet to reach their full potential.

    “In addition, several alternate battery technologies such as metal-air, sodium-ion, etc., have evolved; however, they are yet to reach their full potential [11,12].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [11] Wanger, 2011, The Lithium future—Resources, recycling, and the environment, Conserv. Lett. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [12] Wray, 2009, Lithium Lowdown, Am. Ceram. Soc. Bull.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    A significant number of lithium-ion batteries were sold on the Chinese market over the past ten years, constituting 49% of global sales in 2019, preceded by Europe and the USA.

    “Records reveal that a significant number of LBs were sold on the Chinese market over the past ten years, constituting 49% of global sales in 2019, preceded by Europe and the USA.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    By the end of 2025, total lithium-ion battery capacity is anticipated to exceed 800 GWh.

    “By the end of 2025, the total LB capacity is anticipated to exceed 800 GWh [20].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [20] Melin, H.E. (2021). The Lithium-Ion Battery Life Cycle Report 2021, Circular Energy Storage.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    In recent years, the demand for electric vehicles (EVs) has accelerated to fulfill worldwide demands of an eco-friendly transportation system.

    “In recent years, the demand for electric vehicles (EVs) has accelerated to fulfill worldwide demands of an eco-friendly transportation system [1,2].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [1] Ma, 2014, Optimal charging of plugin electric vehicles for a car- park infrastructure, IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [2] Barman, 2021, Energy efficient torque allocation design emphasis on payload in a light-duty distributed drive electric vehicle, IEEE Access source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The Tesla giga-factory has a total manufacturing capacity of 35 GWh yearly.

    “As per the scale of the Tesla giga-factory, it has a total manufacturing capacity of 35 GWh yearly [4].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [4] Bibra, E.M., Connelly, E., Dhir, S., Drtil, M., Henriot, P., Hwang, I., Le Marois, J.-B., McBain, S., Paoli, L., and Teter, J. (2022). Global EV Outlook 2022: Securing Supplies for an Electric Future, International Energy Agency.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    At present, the demand and supply chain are yet to evolve to maintain a sustainable flow of raw materials to battery manufacturers.

    “At present, the demand and supply chain are yet to evolve to maintain a sustainable flow of raw materials to battery manufacturers.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    The current demand for lithium-ion batteries is more than 350 GWh, which is more than two times the demand in 2020.

    “The current demand for LBs is more than 350 GWh which is more than two times the demand in 2020.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Battery prices could fall to 73 USD/kWh by 2030 as compared to today's 240 USD/kWh.

    “As per the survey, battery prices could fall to 73 USD/kWh by 2030 as compared to today's 240 USD/kWh.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Lithium-ion batteries have emerged as the top choice in a wide range of applications because of superior quality attributes and promising performance such as high-power density, longevity, and reduced memory effect.

    “Nonetheless, they have emerged as the top choice in a wide range of applications because of their superior quality attributes and promising performance, such as high-power density, longevity, and reduced memory effect [16][17][18][19].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [16][17][18][19]

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Specific inherent challenges associated with mining and sourcing raw materials for batteries restrict their manufacturing to fulfill the ever-rising demand for EV batteries.

    “However, specific inherent challenges associated with mining and sourcing raw materials for batteries must be resolved as they restrict their manufacturing to fulfill the ever-rising demand for EV batteries.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    On a global scale, the use of lithium-ion batteries in EVs has outpaced other technologies with a market share of 51%.

    “On a global scale, the use of LBs in EVs has outpaced other technologies with a market share of 51%.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Lithium-ion batteries in light- and heavy-duty vehicles are predicted to expand significantly over the next ten years, reaching a share of 77% in 2030.

    “LBs in light-and heavy-duty vehicles are predicted to expand significantly over the next ten years, reaching a startling share of 77% in 2030.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The transition of the transportation sector from fossil-fuel-powered engines to battery-powered systems will reduce greenhouse gas emissions by reducing the carbon footprint.

    “The transition of the transportation sector from engines powered by fossil fuels to battery-powered systems will reduce greenhouse gas emissions by reducing the carbon footprint [6,7].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [6] Daniel, 2008, Materials and processing for lithium-ion batteries, JOM source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [7] Zackrisson, 2010, Life cycle assessment of lithium-ion batteries for plug-in hybrid electric vehicles–Critical issues, J. Clean. Prod. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Cathode chemistry is a crucial distinguishing factor of a battery because it governs performance, so the availability of cathode material becomes decisive in adopting a battery in the long run.

    “A crucial distinguishing factor of a battery is the cathode chemistry, which governs its performance, so the availability of cathode material becomes decisive in adopting a battery in the long run.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    Nickel-based chemistries were vital in the EV market during 2021, with a more than 75% market share of cathode materials due to their superior driving range.

    “Nickel-based chemistries were vital in the EV market during 2021, with a more than 75% market share of cathode materials due to their superior driving range.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    According to current statistics, 80 kt of lithium was used in 2021.

    “According to the current statistics, 80 kt of lithium was used in 2021.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The emergence of nickel decreased the utilization of cobalt in lithium-ion batteries because nickel-based batteries achieved higher energy densities at a lower cost.

    “However, the emergence of nickel decreased the utilization of cobalt in LBs as nickelbased batteries achieved higher energy densities at a lower cost [34].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [34] (2022, August 02). Unlocking Growth in Battery Cell Manufacturing for Electric Vehicles. Available online: https://www.mckinsey.com/business-functions/operations/our-insights/unlocking-growth-in-battery-cell-manufacturing-for-electric-vehicles.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    The profound limitation of LFP batteries is recycling, because recycling produces iron and phosphorous, which are relatively inexpensive compared to precious metals such as nickel and cobalt produced during recycling of NMC batteries.

    “The profound limitation of LFP batteries, however, is recycling, as recycling produces iron and phosphorous, which are relatively inexpensive compared to precious metals such as the nickel and cobalt produced during the recycling of NMC batteries.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Battery demands in Europe increased by 70% in the last six years.

    “Furthermore, battery demands in Europe increased by 70% in the last six years.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The battery cell requires a high amount of cathode materials to compensate for the higher energy density of a graphite anode.

    “The battery cell requires a high amount of cathode materials to compensate for the higher energy density of a graphite anode [35].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [35] Du, 2014, High energy density calendered Si alloy/graphite anodes, J. Electrochem. Soc. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    During 2022, almost 50% of the EVs manufactured by Tesla used LFP batteries.

    “During 2022, almost 50% of the EVs manufactured by Tesla used LFP batteries.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisereasoning

    The USA saw battery demand growth that doubled in 2021.

    “The USA has also seen impressive demand growth that doubled in 2021.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    A high commodity price may offer long-term benefits, such as increasing supply investments to expand industry capacity.

    “However, the high price of a commodity may offer some long-term benefits, such as increasing supply investments to expand the industry capacity [44].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [44] (2022, August 02). Available online: https://about.bnef.com/blog/battery-pack-prices-fall-to-an-average-of-132-kwh-but-rising-commodity-prices-start-to-bite/.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    LFP is a cobalt-free battery chemistry that is relatively inexpensive, less likely to catch fire, and has a long-life cycle.

    “LFP is a cobalt-free battery chemistry that is relatively inexpensive, less likely to catch fire, and has a long-life cycle [37].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [37] Shchurov, N.I., Dedov, S.I., Malozyomov, B.V., Shtang, A.A., Martyushev, N.V., Klyuev, R.V., and Andriashin, S.N. (2021). Degradation of lithium-ion batteries in an electric transport complex. Energies, 14. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The EV battery supply chain consists of steps starting from extracting necessary mineral ores, refining, materials' synthesis, battery cell production, and recycling.

    “The supply chain consists of the steps starting from extracting the necessary mineral ores, refining, materials' synthesis, battery cell production, and recycling [45].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [45] Rajaeifar, M.A., Heidrich, O., Ghadimi, P., Raugei, M., and Wu, Y. (2020). Sustainable supply and value chains of electric vehicle batteries. Resour. Conserv. Recycl.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The newly emerging Cell-to-Pack (CTP) technology improves the volumetric energy density, thereby decreasing the dead weight of LFP batteries.

    “In addition to that, the newly emerging Cell-to-Pack (CTP) technology improves the volumetric energy density, thereby decreasing the dead weight of LPF batteries [39].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [39] Wang, 2022, An experimental analysis on thermal runaway and its propagation in Cell-to-Pack lithium-ion batteries, Appl. Therm. Eng. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The price hike in battery-grade metals is justified by excessive demand and escalating pressure on supply chains because of shrinking supplies.

    “This price hike is justified by excessive demand and escalating pressure on supply chains because of shrinking supplies [43].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [43] (2022, August 02). Supply Chain Intelligence. Available online: https://www.spglobal.com/marketintelligence/en/.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    The Russia-Ukraine conflict has drastically affected the nickel supply chain globally, as Russia is the topmost supplier of class-1 battery-grade nickel.

    “The Russia-Ukraine conflict has drastically affected the nickel supply chain globally, as Russia is the topmost supplier of class-1 battery-grade nickel.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Lithium prices increased dramatically from the first quarter of 2021 to the second quarter of 2022; likewise, cobalt and nickel prices doubled.

    “Lithium prices increased dramatically from the first quarter of 2021 to the second quarter of 2022; likewise, cobalt and nickel prices doubled.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Despite the large number of lithium-ion battery studies conducted, there is a gap in research based on the supply chain of various critical lithium-ion battery constituent materials.

    “Despite the large number of LB studies conducted, there is a gap in the research based on the supply chain of various critical LB constituent materials.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    The cathode demand more than doubled compared to the demand of 2020.

    “The cathode demand more than doubled compared to the demand of 2020.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Due to the high nickel content in NMC and NCA cathodes, they have a high energy density and thus dominate in the EV market.

    “Due to the high nickel content in NMC and NCA cathodes, they have a high energy density and thus dominate in the EV market [36].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [36] Brand, 2013, Electrical safety of commercial Li-ion cells based on NMC and NCA technology compared to LFP technology, World Electr. Veh. J. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    China has an 80% global graphite supply, being dominant in the world.

    “China has an 80% global graphite supply, being dominant in the world.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Recently evolved technological improvements of LFP lead to its resurgence, occupying nearly 25% of the total market share, primarily in China.

    “Recently evolved technological improvements of LFP lead to its resurgence, occupying nearly 25% of the total market share, primarily in China.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    China is the leading EV battery consumer with a market requirement of 200 GWh in 2021.

    “China is the leading EV battery consumer with a market requirement of 200 GWh in 2021.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    A battery comprises individual components such as a cathode, an anode, electrolytes, and separators.

    “A battery comprises individual components such as a cathode, an anode, electrolytes, and separators [52].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [52] Saariluoma, H., Piiroinen, A., Unt, A., Hakanen, J., Rautava, T., and Salminen, A. (2020). Overview of optical digital measuring challenges and technologies in laser welded components in ev battery module design and manufacturing. Batteries, 6. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Two distinct nickel deposits are found in nature: sulfide and laterite.

    “Two distinct nickel deposits are found in nature, namely: sulfide and laterite [48].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [48] Mudd, 2010, Global trends and environmental issues in nickel mining: Sulfides versus laterites, Ore Geol. Rev. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Echelon utilization is thought to be one of the best options for treating RP LBs and is anticipated to become more common in the coming years.

    “On the other hand, echelon utilization is thought to be one of the best options for treating RP LBs and is anticipated to become more common in the coming years of study [65].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [65] Cusenza, 2019, Reuse of electric vehicle batteries in buildings: An integrated load match analysis and life cycle assessment approach, Energy Build. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Cell fabrication technology is well established.

    “Out of those, the cell fabrication technology is well established [55].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [55] Tagawa, K., and Brodd, R.J. (2009). Lithium-Ion Batteries, Springer.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The refining process involves an intense industrial process with heat and chemical treatment to transform raw ore into chemicals such as lithium carbonate, lithium hydroxide, or cobalt and nickel sulphate.

    “The refining process involves an intense industrial process with heat and chemical treatment to transform raw ore into chemicals such as lithium carbonate, lithium hydroxide, or cobalt and nickel sulphate [50].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [50] Kelly, 2021, Energy, greenhouse gas, and water life cycle analysis of lithium carbonate and lithium hydroxide monohydrate from brine and ore resources and their use in lithium ion battery cathodes and lithium ion batteries, Resour. Conserv. Recycl. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Lithium is produced mainly from brine and hard-rock deposits (spodumene); both are used to extract specific products with differing values.

    “Lithium is produced mainly from brine and hard-rock deposits (spodumene); both are used to extract specific products with differing values [46,47].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [46] Tadesse, 2019, The beneficiation of lithium minerals from hard rock ores: A review, Miner. Eng. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [47] Jiankang, 2015, The metallogenetic regularities of lithium deposits in China, Acta Geol. Sin. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Conventional retired power (RP) LBs constitute iron or aluminum; an admixture of graphite, conductor, binder, and electrolyte is layered on copper foils to serve as the retired LBs' anode substance.

    “Conventional retired power (RP) LBs constitute iron or aluminum; an admixture of graphite, conductor, binder, and electrolyte is layered on copper foils to serve as the retired LBs' anode substance [59].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [59] Wakihara, 2001, Recent developments in lithium ion batteries, Mater. Sci. Eng. R Rep. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Three main methods are used in lithium-ion recycling: pyrometallurgical, hydrometallurgical, bioleaching, and direct recycling.

    “Three main methods are used in lithium-ion recycling: pyrometallurgical, hydrometallurgical, bioleaching, and direct recycling [67][68][69].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [67][68][69]

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Separators are microporous membranes engineered from polyethylene or polypropylene.

    “Separators are microporous membranes engineered from polyethylene or polypropylene [54].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [54] Liang, 2016, Polyethylene oxide-coated electrospun polyimide fibrous seperator for high-performance lithium-ion battery, J. Mater. Sci. Technol. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Short contacts between the opposite electrodes are averted using the cathode-anode separator element.

    “Short contacts between the opposite electrodes are also averted using the cathode-anode separator element [60].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [60] Zhang, 2014, Chemical and process mineralogical characterizations of spent lithium-ion batteries: An approach by multi-analytical techniques, Waste Manag. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Grid energy storage and 5G base stations are two examples of echelon utilization that can completely utilize the leftover energy in RP LBs.

    “Grid energy storage and 5G base stations are two examples of echelon utilization that can completely utilize the leftover energy in RP LBs [66].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [66] Wang, 2020, Optimal design of electric vehicle battery recycling network—From the perspective of electricvehicle manufacturers, Appl. Energy source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Adding small and increasing silicon fractions into the graphite anode improves the anode performance.

    “Adding small and increasing silicon fractions into the graphite anode improves the anode performance [53].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [53] Wu, 2019, The critical role of carbon in marrying silicon and graphite anodes for high-energy lithium-ion batteries, Carbon Energy source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    During nickel and copper mining, 60.7% and 29.3% of the cobalt used worldwide is found as a by-product.

    “During nickel and copper mining, 60.7% and 29.3% of the cobalt used worldwide is found as a by-product [49].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [49] Ryu, 2021, Reducing cobalt from lithium-ion batteries for the electric vehicle era, Energy Environ. Sci. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The nickel process technology involves high-pressure acid leaching (HPAL), which can produce class-1 nickel from lower-grade laterite resources.

    “The nickel process technology involves the method of high-pressure acid leaching (HPAL), which can produce class-1 nickel from lower-grade laterite resources [51].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [51] Guo, 2011, Leaching behavior of metals from limonitic laterite ore by high pressure acid leaching, Trans. Nonferrous Met. Soc. China source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Reuse faces issues from reliability, economy, regulatory, and competitive advantages.

    “Despite having an additional value, reuse faces issues from reliability, economy, regulatory, and competitive advantages [58].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [58] Faessler, B. (2021). Stationary, second use battery energy storage systems and their applications: A research review. Energies, 14. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The commodity price appreciation significantly influences the LB manufacturing industry expense.

    “The commodity price appreciation significantly influences the LB manufacturing industry expense; however, it has a long-term benefit to improving the capacity expansion and supply investments.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The anticipated demand for battery metals might grow considerably higher in the net zero emission scenario by 2025.

    “The anticipated demand for battery metals might grow considerably higher in the net zero emission scenario by 2025.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The use of echelon utilization is expanding globally as industries and academic institutions are actively researching to develop cutting-edge technologies for commercialization.

    “The use of echelon utilization is expanding globally as industries and academic institutions are actively researching to develop cutting-edge technologies for commercialization [75].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [75] Wang, 2021, Heat dissipation optimization for a serpentine liquid cooling battery thermalmanagement system: An application of surrogate assisted approach, J. Energy Storage source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    They have adopted several policies to promote and incentivize the battery material mining and processing industries.

    “They have adopted several policies to promote and incentivize the battery material mining and processing industries.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The commodity price appreciation has a long-term benefit to improving the capacity expansion and supply investments.

    “The commodity price appreciation significantly influences the LB manufacturing industry expense; however, it has a long-term benefit to improving the capacity expansion and supply investments.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The use of technology such as the blockchain platform, which monitors supply chain execution, allows for greater control over battery performance and environmental impact.

    “The use of technology such as the blockchain platform, which monitors supply chain execution, allows for greater control over battery performance and environmental impact.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Leading EV manufacturing nations seek to move up the supply chain from producing EV components and vehicles to securing secure upstream supply and metal and mineral refining capabilities to curb the material shortage.

    “Leading EV manufacturing nations seek to move up the supply chain from producing EV components and vehicles to securing secure upstream supply and metal and mineral refining capabilities to curb the material shortage.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    To meet the unique EV demands, diversification will increase significantly through 2030.

    “To meet the unique EV demands, diversification will increase significantly through 2030.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Nations all over the world have adopted industrial policies to develop a sustainable battery supply chain.

    “Nations all over the world have adopted industrial policies to develop a sustainable battery supply chain.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Cloud, IOT, AI, and blockchain technologies all assist in tracking output while recognizing the key issues in related markets.

    “Cloud, IOT, AI, and blockchain technologies all assist in tracking output while recognizing the key issues in related markets.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Greater transparency is made possible throughout the complete supply chain, including production, reusing, recycling, and disposal.

    “Greater transparency is made possible throughout the complete supply chain, including production, reusing, recycling, and disposal.”
    • Also stated in: § 9. Conclusions · plain
      “Greater transparency is made possible throughout the complete supply chain, including production, reusing, recycling, and disposal.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    In March 2022, there was a collaborative alliance between the European Battery Alliance and the US Li-Bridge to gear up the next generation of LB technology.

    “In March 2022, there was a collaborative alliance between the European Battery Alliance and the US Li-Bridge to gear up the next generation of LB technology [80].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [80] (2023, March 12). Available online: https://single-market-economy.ec.europa.eu/industry/strategy/industrial-alliances/european-battery-alliance_sv.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationnone given

    Several mining companies are attempting to adopt the DLE with the help of joint ventures with DLE-technology developing industries.

    “Several mining companies are attempting to adopt the DLE with the help of joint ventures with DLE-technology developing industries.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Considering the case of net zero, this tendency could be interrupted by implementing regulations prohibiting EVs with incredibly large batteries.

    “Considering the case of net zero, this tendency could be interrupted by implementing regulations prohibiting EVs with incredibly large batteries.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Europe has organized the Batt4EU Partnership among the industry and R&D stakeholders to promote new innovations in LB supply chain technology.

    “Europe has also organized the Batt4EU Partnership among the industry and R&D stakeholders to promote the new innovations in LB supply chain technology [81].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [81] (2023, March 12). Available online: https://bepassociation.eu/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/BEPA_ACTIVITY-REPORT_2021.pdf.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Low-range urban vehicles will presumably adopt LFP batteries.

    “Low-range urban vehicles will presumably adopt LFP batteries.”
    • Also stated in: § 9. Conclusions · hedged
      “low-range urban vehicles will presumably adopt LFP batteries.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The Canadian government approved USD 398 million in the first quarter of 2022 to General Motors of Canada to expand EV facilities by modernizing and retooling them with cutting-edge technologies.

    “The Canadian government approved USD 398 million in the first quarter of 2022 to General Motors of Canada to expand EV facilities by modernizing and retooling them with cutting-edge technologies [79].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [79] (2023, March 12). Available online: https://electricautonomy.ca/2022/04/04/gm-ontario-federal-funding-ev-production/.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    New investments are being directed to the other regions of the world and are expected to increase the production capacity by 2030.

    “Nevertheless, new investments are being directed to the other regions of the world and are expected to increase the production capacity by 2030.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    In hydrometallurgy, specialized solution reagents are primarily used to leach the targeted metals out from the cathode substance.

    “In hydrometallurgy, specialized solution reagents are primarily used to leach the targeted metals out from the cathode substance [70].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [70] Ferreira, 2009, Hydrometallurgical separation of aluminium, cobalt, copper andlithium from spent Li-ion batteries, J. Power Sources source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    China accounts for 70% of its positive electrode materials and 85% of the global production capacity of negative electrode materials.

    “China accounts for 70% of its positive electrode materials and 85% of the global production capacity of negative electrode materials.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [4] Bibra, E.M., Connelly, E., Dhir, S., Drtil, M., Henriot, P., Hwang, I., Le Marois, J.-B., McBain, S., Paoli, L., and Teter, J. (2022). Global EV Outlook 2022: Securing Supplies for an Electric Future, International Energy Agency.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The future of battery chemistries is uncertain because of the fluctuating market demand for critical resources as well as the emergence of several alternate battery chemistries.

    “We can conclude that the future of battery chemistries is uncertain because of the fluctuating market demand for critical resources as well as the emergence of several alternate battery chemistries.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Blockchain technology aids in tracking batteries and recognizing the critical issues in associated markets.

    “Additionally, blockchain technology aids in tracking batteries and recognizing the critical issues in associated markets.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    China processes raw materials for lithium, cobalt, and graphite, and has half the world's production capacity.

    “They also process raw materials for lithium, cobalt, and graphite in China, which has half the world's production capacity.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [4] Bibra, E.M., Connelly, E., Dhir, S., Drtil, M., Henriot, P., Hwang, I., Le Marois, J.-B., McBain, S., Paoli, L., and Teter, J. (2022). Global EV Outlook 2022: Securing Supplies for an Electric Future, International Energy Agency.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Premium category vehicles are likely to adopt high energy density batteries such as nickel chemistry-based batteries, lithium nickel oxide, or lithium-manganese-rich batteries.

    “Premium category vehicles are likely to adopt high energy density batteries such as nickel chemistry-based batteries, lithium nickel oxide, or lithium-manganese-rich batteries.”
    • Also stated in: § 9. Conclusions · hedged
      “For example, premium category vehicles are likely to adopt NCA/NMC batteries”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The diversification of EV demands is crucial for future EV fleets because of varied battery chemistries.

    “The diversification of EV demands is crucial for future EV fleets because of varied battery chemistries.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    With high competition in both academia and industry, batteries with a low charging time, low cost, and high boosting capacity are in the highest demand.

    “Nevertheless, with high competition in both academia and industry, batteries with a low charging time, low cost, and high boosting capacity are in the highest demand.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The market for batteries could face tough competition from new battery technologies.

    “As a result, the market for batteries could face tough competition from new battery technologies.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Despite the massive growth of EV fleets in Europe and the USA in recent years, they still lack battery production.

    “Despite the massive growth of EV fleets in Europe and the USA in recent years, they still lack battery production.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    India is focusing on advanced automotive technology and battery cells to support the supply chain dynamics.

    “India is focusing on advanced automotive technology and battery cells to support the supply chain dynamics [82].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [82] (2023, March 12). Available online: https://pliauto.in/.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    China is still the global leader in almost all supply chain steps.

    “China is still the global leader in almost all supply chain steps.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The LB supply chain is a collective attempt of several industry chains such as mining, processing, recycling, etc.

    “The LB supply chain is a collective attempt of several industry chains such as mining, processing, recycling, etc.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Mid-range vehicles are expected to use manganese-rich chemistry batteries.

    “Unlike them, mid-range vehicles are expected to use manganese-rich chemistry batteries.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
145 of 145

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    China holds a 77 percent market share in the global EV industry.

    “Due to its forward-thinking policies supporting industries over the past ten years, China holds a 77 percent market share in the global EV industry.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Half of the global lithium stock is supplied from Australia, while 70% of cobalt extracted worldwide is contributed by the Democratic Republic of Congo.

    “For instance, half of the global lithium stock is supplied from Australia, while 70% of cobalt extracted worldwide is contributed by the Democratic Republic of Congo.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    China is leading battery recycling, accounting for about half the global capacity of 200 kt/year.

    “China is leading battery recycling, accounting for about half the global capacity of 200 kt/year.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Graphite is the dominant battery anode material; China dominates the market with 80% global supply.

    “Graphite is the dominant battery anode material; China dominates the market with 80% global supply.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The Democratic Republic of Congo and Switzerland are the primary cobalt producers, with over 70% of the world's cobalt production being sourced from these two countries.

    “The Democratic Republic of Congo and Switzerland are the primary cobalt producers, with over 70% of the world's cobalt production being sourced from these two countries.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    China is the leading manganese supplier, accounting for about 90% of the global production capacity.

    “China is the leading manganese supplier, accounting for about 90% of the global production capacity.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    More than 55% of cathode materials manufactured worldwide are owned by seven firms.

    “More than 55% of cathode materials manufactured worldwide are owned by seven firms, among which Sumitomo (Tokyo, Japan), Tianjin B&M Science and Technology (Tianjin, China), Shenzhen Dynanonic (Shenzhen, China), and Ningbo Shanshan (Ningbo, China) are the major players.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Six companies, all based in China, contribute more than 65% of the anode materials made globally.

    “Six companies, all based in China, contribute more than 65% of the anode materials made globally.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    China, Korea, and Japan were the top three battery cell producers in 2021.

    “China, Korea, and Japan were the top three battery cell producers in 2021.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Five companies contribute 75% of the global production of any EV battery material.

    “Five companies contribute 75% of the global production of any EV battery material.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Lithium-ion batteries have demonstrated their efficacy in EVs, but they are not ideal for stationary storage.

    “Although lithium-ion batteries have demonstrated their efficacy in EVs, they are not ideal for stationary storage.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The battery technologies for EVs are still in their nascent stage, and there is significant headroom for research in this direction.

    “Moreover, the battery technologies for EVs' are still in their nascent stage, and there is significant headroom for research in this direction.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    From 2015 to 2021, the average battery size increased by 10% annually.

    “From 2015 to 2021, the average battery size increased by 10% annually.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The existing literature does not have sufficient discussions on various aspects of LB supply chain dynamics and related industry outlooks.

    “The existing literature does not have sufficient discussions on various aspects of LB supply chain dynamics and related industry outlooks.”
14 of 14

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • Critical minerals are essential for new energy technologies, including wind, solar, and batteries.

    “Critical minerals are essential for new energy technologies, including wind, solar, and batteries [7-9].”

    From Lithium Supply Chain Optimization: A Global Analysis of Critical Minerals for Batteries (2024) · cites this paper as [9]

    Section 3, “Critical Battery Material” (page unavailable), says lithium, cobalt, and nickel are needed to make lithium batteries. The passages found support the battery portion of the claim but do not establish that critical minerals are essential for wind or solar technologies. (LLM, conf=0.84)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • LFP is described as unusable in EVs despite reported EV use

    Minor

    Table 2 says LFP has inadequate energy density for use in EVs, but the text reports that almost half of Tesla's EVs manufactured in 2022 used LFP batteries.

  • Battery-size projection does not follow the stated annual growth pattern

    Minor

    The stated 10% annual growth pattern would increase battery size by about 136% over the nine years from 2021 to 2030, not by up to 30%.

  • Figure 7 is assigned two different time spans

    Minor

    The body says Figure 7 covers the last five years, while its caption says the last eight years.

  • Lithium carbonate is both used for cathodes and declared unsuitable for lithium-ion batteries

    Minor

    The mining section identifies lithium carbonate as a primary material for battery cathodes, whereas the processing section says it is not suitable for lithium-ion batteries.

4 of 4

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 2

  1. Wray, 2009, Lithium Lowdown, Am. Ceram. Soc. Bull., 88, 17
  2. Tagawa, K., and Brodd, R.J. (2009). Lithium-Ion Batteries, Springer.

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Barman, P., Dutta, L., & Azzopardi, B.
Affiliations
  • Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati (IN)
  • Gauhati University (IN)
  • Malta College of Arts, Science and Technology (MT)
Corresponding author
Barman, Pranjal
ORCID
Venue
Energies
Publisher
MDPI AG
Published
2023-04-11
Volume
16
Issue
8
Pages
3369
ISSN
1996-1073 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.3390/en16083369
OpenAlex
W4365147045
Semantic Scholar
a8cc4b06a9e3541e865bb831840f5c11cebdbb80
Cited by
70
References
67
Citations by year
2026: 16 · 2025: 30 · 2024: 17 · 2023: 7
FWCI
6.90
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Energies (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • OAR@UM (University of Malta) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
  • RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Funders
European Commission’s H2020 TWINNING Networking for Excellence in Electric Mobility Operations (NEEMO) Project (857484)
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Engineering › Mechanical Engineering › Extraction and Separation Processes
  • Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Electric Vehicles and Infrastructure
  • Physical Sciences › Engineering › Building and Construction › Mining and Resource Management
Keywords
electric vehicle batteries, battery supply chain, critical raw materials, battery recycling, battery reuse, resource reserves, commodity prices, battery manufacturing, global market share

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-10.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-10.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review