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Cited by 55Transportation and Mobility InnovationsTransportation Planning and OptimizationElectric Vehicles and Infrastructure

Assessing the Role of Autonomous Vehicles in Urban Areas: A Systematic Review of Literature

Open access
Makahleh, Hisham Y., Ferranti, Emma Jayne Sakamoto, Dissanayake, Dilum·2024·Future Transportation
DOI 10.3390/futuretransp4020017
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Abstract

Autonomous vehicles (AVs) aim to improve safety and comfort of road users while contributing to the reduction of traffic congestion, air pollution, fuel consumption, and enabling mobility and accessibility of disabled and older people. As AV technology is rapidly advancing, there is an urgent need to explore how those new mobility services will impact urban transport systems, including the users, the infrastructure, and the design of future urban areas. This paper applies a systematic review to assess the role of AVs in urban areas. It reviews 41 articles published between 2003 and 2023, and uses inductive and deductive coding approaches to identify seven themes and thirty sub-themes within the literature. The seven include: benefits, attitudes, and behaviours and user perception, climate adaptation, climate mitigation, legislation and regulations, sustainability, and infrastructure. Studies related to benefits accounted for 25% of the sample, followed by behaviours and user perception (24%) and sustainability (22%). The least amount of research has been undertaken on the role of AVs to support climate adaptation. Geographically, almost half (#22) of the papers originate within Europe, followed by America (#10) and Asia (#7). There is only limited research originating from the Global South. This systematic review sets the scene for considering how AVs in public transport can be implemented in urban areas by establishing the current state of knowledge on user attitudes, perceptions, and behaviour, the benefits of AVs, the infrastructure and legislation and regulations required for AVs, and the role AVs have in climate mitigation, adaptation, and sustainability.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This systematic review synthesizes 41 articles published between 2003 and 2023 on autonomous vehicles (AVs) in urban areas, identifying seven themes and thirty sub-themes. It finds research concentrated on benefits, user attitudes/behaviour, and sustainability, while climate adaptation is least studied and evidence is geographically skewed toward Europe and North America.

Key findings

  • Across the 41 articles, the most prominent themes were benefits (25%), attitudes/behaviours and user perception (24%), and sustainability (22%); climate adaptation received the least research attention.
  • Geographically, 22 papers originated from Europe, 10 from America, 7 from Asia, 1 from Africa, and 1 from Oceania, covering 31 countries and 4 continents; the review notes limited research from the Global South.
  • Reported AV-related impacts include positive network capacity and traffic stability once AV penetration exceeds 10–20%, urban parking spaces potentially reduced by as much as 90% in ridesharing mode, average nitrogen dioxide reductions up to −4%, and possible falls in public transport use by 18% and walking/cycling by 13%.
  • Willingness-to-pay findings report an average of $7253 for adding complete (Level 4) automation versus $3300 for partial (Level 3) automation; climate modelling found a small emissions rise at 30% AV penetration but a significant 30% reduction when AVs are electric.

Methods

  • Systematic literature review using Scopus and Web of Science, following PRISMA; searches generated 409 and 209 records respectively, reduced to 442 after duplicate removal, then screened down to 41 included articles.
  • Inclusion was limited to English-language documents from 2003–2023, with a four-step clustering algorithm (Scope, Target Group, Subject Domain, Methods) and inclusion/exclusion criteria focused on AVs and urban areas.
  • Articles were coded in NVivo 12 using inductive and deductive approaches; themes and sub-themes were constructed, and cross-tabulation by region was performed. The reviewed articles’ data collection included traffic data (12 articles), previous studies (18), and surveys plus other approaches (9).

Limitations

  • Stated: geographic bias toward Europe and North America, with small sample sizes for regions such as Asia affecting representativeness and generalizability; narrow inclusion/exclusion criteria excluded broader AV-sustainability research; lack of sufficient data and experimental results limits definitive conclusions; English-language-only inclusion creates language bias; and the field’s dynamic nature means themes may evolve.
  • Stated: works based on AV “traffic data” are limited, and many conclusions are based on limited data and hypothetical conclusions.
  • Evident from the text: the paper reports “thirty sub-themes” in the abstract and conclusion but “thirty-two sub-themes” in the Results section, an internal inconsistency in the reported coding output.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.3390/futuretransp4020017

Cites

66 of 66 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

52 of 102 cited sources checked · 18 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Premisecitation

    AV infrastructure requirements in urban and non-urban environments may greatly vary.

    “AV infrastructure requirements in urban and non-urban environments might greatly vary, to start [9].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [9] Tengilimoglu, 2023, Infrastructure requirements for the safe operation of automated vehicles: Opinions from experts and stakeholders, Transp. Policy source
  • Premisecitation

    Deployment of AVs in urban areas is estimated to result in a 35% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions.

    “It is estimated that the deployment of Avs in urban areas will result in a substantial 35% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions, representing a significant stride towards a more visionary urban future [7,8].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim2 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [7] Stead, 2019, Automated vehicles and how they may affect urban form: A review of recent scenario studies, Cities source

      The Conclusions and recommendations section mentions lower emissions as a potential benefit associated with AVs. It does not estimate a 35% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions, and its conditional language does not support the citing sentence’s definite prediction (searched: “35% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions” and “35”). (LLM, conf=0.85)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [8] Massar, M., Reza, I., Rahman, S.M., Abdullah, S.M.H., Jamal, A., and Al-Ismail, F.S. (2021). Impacts of Autonomous Vehicles on Greenhouse Gas Emissions—Positive or Negative?. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 18. source

      The paper reports that AVs can reduce emissions, but it does not support a general estimate of a 35% reduction from urban deployment. Section 5 reports a maximum CO₂ reduction of 4.08% in one congested urban-road-network study, while Section 7 cautions that increased travel could offset emissions gains. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Premisecitation

    AVs create a social dilemma in terms of social norms and values.

    “On the contrary, in terms of social norms and values, AVs create a social dilemma [56].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [56] Bonnefon, 2016, The social dilemma of autonomous vehicles, Science source
  • Premisecitation

    The improvement of public transportation, large-scale restricted traffic areas, and pedestrian areas induces a significant modal shift towards better environmentally friendly alternatives.

    “The improvement of public transportation large-scale restricted traffic areas and pedestrian areas induces a significant modal shift towards better environmentally friendly alternatives [54].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [54] Coppola, 2019, Future mobility and land use scenarios: Impact assessment with an urban case study, Transp. Res. Procedia source

      The Abstract and Conclusions report a significant shift toward more sustainable modes when improved public transport is combined with car restrictions and car-free areas. The claim omits that this is a result of simulated scenarios involving innovative shared-mobility solutions, and states the effect unconditionally; the Conclusions say it 'may induce' the shift and note that less stringent interventions did not substantially reduce transport-related harms. (LLM, conf=0.87)

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  • Premisecitation

    Associated environmental benefits include improved air quality with an average reduction of nitrogen dioxide concentrations up to 4%.

    “Associated environmental benefits include improved air quality with average reduction of nitrogen dioxide concentrations up to -4% [30,40,41].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [30] Huang, 2021, A Distributed Urban Traffic Congestion Prevention Mechanism for Mixed Flow of Human-Driven and Autonomous Electric Vehicles, Int. J. Comput. Intell. Syst. source

      The Introduction discusses reducing carbon emissions, but does not report nitrogen dioxide concentrations. Section 4.2 reports changes in EV traffic volumes and travel times, not air quality. Searches for nitrogen dioxide, NO₂, air pollution, and the claimed 4% reduction found no passage addressing that result. (LLM, conf=0.74)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [40] Rafael, 2022, How can the built environment affect the impact of autonomous vehicles’ operational behaviour on air quality?, J. Environ. Manag. source
    • cites [41] Glazener, 2019, Transforming Our Cities: Best Practices towards Clean Air and Active Transportation, Curr. Environ. Health Rep. source
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 43
  • May combine two claims. 47

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Alternative strategies may be required in legislative frameworks that approve the use of AVs.

    “Furthermore, alternative strategies may be required to be used by legislative frameworks that approve the use of AVs [12][13][14].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [12] Schepis, 2023, How governments influence autonomous vehicle (AV) innovation, Transp. Res. Part A Policy Pract. source
    • cites [13] Eastman, 2023, A Comparative Look at Various Countries’ Legal Regimes Governing Automated Vehicles, JL Mobil.
    • cites [14] Parekh, D., Poddar, N., Rajpurkar, A., Chahal, M., Kumar, N., Joshi, G.P., and Cho, W. (2022). A Review on Autonomous Vehicles: Progress, Methods and Challenges. Electronics, 11. source

      The Research Questions Answers section says new regulations or legislation can set rules for how self-driving cars deal with foreseeable crashes, and the Conclusions identify governance as important to widespread AV use. These passages support considering new legislative approaches, but do not discuss frameworks that approve AV use or say those frameworks may require alternative strategies. No page numbers are available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.76)

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The primary uses of AVs in urban areas are last-mile issues, traffic reduction, and the enhancement of public transit.

    “Furthermore, the primary uses of AVs in urban areas are last-mile issues, traffic reduction, and the enhancement of public transit [10,11].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim2 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [10] Othman, 2022, Exploring the implications of autonomous vehicles: A comprehensive review, Innov. Infrastruct. Solut. source

      The Conclusions (page not provided) say cities are testing autonomous shuttles and buses to address first- and last-mile travel and increase reliance on public transit. The Public behaviour section says shared AVs could improve traffic conditions by reducing fleet size, but also warns that additional travel could increase vehicle-kilometres traveled. The review does not establish these three as the primary urban uses of AVs. (LLM, conf=0.84)

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    • cites [11] Schippl, 2022, Potential impacts of institutional dynamics on the development of automated vehicles: Towards sustainable mobility?, Transp. Res. Interdiscip. Perspect. source

      Section 2 describes robo-taxis and small buses as possible complements to public transport that could reduce individual car travel; section 5.1 likewise presents improved public transport in one scenario. Neither section identifies these as the primary urban uses of AVs or mentions last-mile service. The paper also considers a scenario in which AVs increase car traffic and weaken public transport. (LLM, conf=0.84)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Some studies indicate a substantial increase in accessibility and encouragement of urban sprawl from AVs.

    “Similarly, some studies indicate a substantial increase in accessibility and encouragement of urban sprawl from AVs [34][35][36][37].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim2 of 4 sources checked
    • cites [34] Meyer, 2017, Autonomous vehicles: The next jump in accessibilities?, Res. Transp. Econ. source
    • cites [35] Camps-Aragó, P., Temmerman, L., Vanobberghen, W., and Delaere, S. (2022). Encouraging the Sustainable Adoption of Autonomous Vehicles for Public Transport in Belgium: Citizen Acceptance, Business Models, and Policy Aspects. Sustainability, 14. source

      Section 2.1 says AVs can increase access to mobility services, particularly for people unable to drive. Section 2.2 describes a possible pathway from AV use to longer commutes and, eventually, urban sprawl. The paper does not establish that the increase in accessibility would be substantial. (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [36] 2018, Exploring paradigm shift impacts in urban mobility: Autonomous Vehicles and Smart Cities, Transp. Res. Procedia

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [37] Eppenberger, 2021, The opportunity of shared autonomous vehicles to improve spatial equity in accessibility and socio-economic developments in European urban areas, Eur. Transp. Res. Rev. source

      The introduction (page unavailable) says AVs could strongly benefit neighbourhoods with lower accessibility and risk accelerating urban sprawl. Section 4, “Discussion and policy recommendations” (page unavailable), likewise describes sprawl as a likely consequence of cheaper SAV travel. The paper supports the direction of both claims, but does not establish a substantial increase in accessibility from AV deployment; it presents that increase as a potential benefit. (LLM, conf=0.84)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The implementation of AVs into the transportation system could promote the use of public transportation, causing a behaviour shift among the populace.

    “The implementation of AVs into the transportation system could promote the use of public transportation (i.e., bus, trains, and trams) [53], causing a behaviour shift among the populace.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [53] Zhao, 2021, Enhanced Mobility with Connectivity and Automation: A Review of Shared Autonomous Vehicle Systems, IEEE Intell. Transp. Syst. Mag. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Planning principles for mobility services based on AVs, such as less flexible travel motivations, could have a direct effect on passengers.

    “Additionally, the planning principles for mobility services based on AVs such as less flexible travel motivations could have a direct effect on passengers [52].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [52] Mordan, 2022, Detecting 32 Pedestrian Attributes for Autonomous Vehicles, IEEE Trans. Intell. Transp. Syst. source

      The Introduction (p. 1) concerns detecting pedestrian attributes, and the Conclusions (p. 10) discuss how an autonomous vehicle's behavior can affect pedestrians' decisions. Searches for less flexible travel motivations, mobility-service planning, and effects on passengers found no passage addressing the cited claim. (LLM, conf=0.76)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductcitation

    This paper applies a methodology consistent with PRISMA and other systematic reviews.

    “As such, this paper applies a methodology consistent with other authors [21].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [21] Alsaeed, B.S., Hunt, D.V.L., and Sharifi, S. (2022). Sustainable Water Resources Management Assessment Frameworks (SWRM-AF) for Arid and Semi-Arid Regions: A Systematic Review. Sustainability, 14. source

      Section 2 (Methodology) says the paper’s search method is consistent with that of other authors and describes its four-step clustering approach. The copy supports the comparison with other systematic reviews, but it does not establish that the methodology is consistent with PRISMA. (LLM, conf=0.83)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The system of electric AVs can reduce journey time, free up parking in urban areas, and generate cost benefits for customers.

    “The system of electric AVs can reduce journey time, free up parking in urban areas, and generate cost benefits for customers [43][44][45].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim2 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [43] Fournier, G., Pfeiffer, C., Baumann, M., and Wörner, R. (2017, January 27–29). Individual mobility by shared autonomous electric vehicle fleets: Cost and CO2 comparison with internal combustion engine vehicles in Berlin, Germany. Proceedings of the 2017 International Conference on Engineering, Technology and Innovation (ICE/ITMC), Madeira, Portugal. source
    • cites [44] Anastasiadou, K., Gavanas, N., Pitsiava-Latinopoulou, M., and Bekiaris, E. (2021). Infrastructure Planning for Autonomous Electric Vehicles, Integrating Safety and Sustainability Aspects: A Multi-Criteria Analysis Approach. Energies, 14. source

      Section 5 (Results and Discussion; page not available) evaluates traffic-congestion reduction, and the paper links congestion to users’ time value. That offers limited support for the journey-time point, but the paper does not establish that electric AVs free urban parking space or generate cost benefits for customers; its cost criterion concerns infrastructure. (LLM, conf=0.81)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [45] Kovačić, M., Mutavdžija, M., and Buntak, K. (2022). New Paradigm of Sustainable Urban Mobility: Electric and Autonomous Vehicles—A Review and Bibliometric Analysis. Sustainability, 14. source

      The Introduction (section 1; page unavailable) says autonomous public transport can lower costs, and the Citation Analysis (section 4.6; page unavailable) reports reduced vehicle-ownership costs from sharing autonomous electric vehicles. The latter discusses using time in the car differently, not shortening journeys. The parking passages in Sustainable Urban Mobility (section 2.1; page unavailable) describe policies to reduce parking spaces, not electric AVs freeing them up. (LLM, conf=0.84)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Most individuals think that everyone would benefit from utilitarian AVs, but these same people have a personal motive to travel in AVs that protect them at all costs.

    “Although most individuals think that everyone would benefit from utilitarian AVs (those that reduce the number of fatalities on the road), these same people have a personal motive to travel in AVs that protect them at all costs.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [56] Bonnefon, 2016, The social dilemma of autonomous vehicles, Science source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    According to studies, AVs in public transportation have improved traffic flow and reduced congestion.

    “From a social and economic perspective, according to studies [29][30][31], AVs in public transportation have improved traffic flow and reduced congestion.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim2 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [29] Zambrano-Martinez, J.L., Calafate, C.T., Soler, D., Lemus-Zúñiga, L.G., Cano, J.C., Manzoni, P., and Gayraud, T. (2019). A Centralized Route-Management Solution for Autonomous Vehicles in Urban Areas. Electronics, 8. source

      The Conclusions report that the paper’s simulated centralized route-management solution reduced congestion and improved traffic fluidity in Valencia. The source does not establish that AVs in public transportation have already produced those benefits; its results concern a proposed traffic-management system, not a public-transport deployment. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [30] Huang, 2021, A Distributed Urban Traffic Congestion Prevention Mechanism for Mixed Flow of Human-Driven and Autonomous Electric Vehicles, Int. J. Comput. Intell. Syst. source

      Section 4.2 reports shorter travel times and lower traffic volumes with autonomous mobility-on-demand ridesharing, with further improvements when congestion control is added. But Section 4 identifies these as simulation results, not observed improvements in public transportation generally; Section 4.2 also says serious rush-hour congestion persisted with ridesharing alone. (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [31] 2022, Autonomous vehicles and changing the future of cities: Technical and urban perspectives, J. Urban Regen. Renew.

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The value of trip time for AVs will potentially decrease significantly, as individuals will be more productive in AVs.

    “Furthermore, the value of trip time for AVs will potentially decrease significantly, as individuals will be more productive in AVs [55].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [55] Garrow, 2021, Urban air mobility: A comprehensive review and comparative analysis with autonomous and electric ground transportation for informing future research, Transp. Res. Part C Emerg. Technol. source

      Section 7 (Conclusions) says AV travel-time values may decrease significantly because passengers can be more productive, but specifies commute trips. Section 4.2.4 (Value of time) reports no significant reduction for leisure or shopping trips in one study, so the claim is too broad when applied to AV trips generally. (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Improving public transportation can persuade more people to use sustainable means of transportation instead of private vehicles, lowering traffic congestion and emissions.

    “By improving public transportation, this attempts to persuade more people to utilize sustainable means of transportation instead of private vehicles, so lowering traffic congestion and emissions [43,44,67,68,72].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim2 of 5 sources checked
    • cites [43] Fournier, G., Pfeiffer, C., Baumann, M., and Wörner, R. (2017, January 27–29). Individual mobility by shared autonomous electric vehicle fleets: Cost and CO2 comparison with internal combustion engine vehicles in Berlin, Germany. Proceedings of the 2017 International Conference on Engineering, Technology and Innovation (ICE/ITMC), Madeira, Portugal. source
    • cites [44] Anastasiadou, K., Gavanas, N., Pitsiava-Latinopoulou, M., and Bekiaris, E. (2021). Infrastructure Planning for Autonomous Electric Vehicles, Integrating Safety and Sustainability Aspects: A Multi-Criteria Analysis Approach. Energies, 14. source

      Section 4.1 discusses public transport as a possible application of autonomous and electric vehicle technologies, and the Introduction says innovative vehicle technologies can reduce emissions. The paper does not say that improving public transportation persuades people to leave private vehicles or that such a shift reduces congestion; its analysis instead concerns infrastructure for autonomous electric vehicles. (LLM, conf=0.78)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [67] Cordera, 2020, New urban planning challenges under emerging autonomous mobility: Evaluating backcasting scenarios and policies through an expert survey, Land Use Policy source
    • cites [68] Richter, 2022, Smart cities, urban mobility and autonomous vehicles: How different cities needs different sustainable investment strategies, Technol. Forecast. Soc. Change source
    • cites [72] Pauwels, A., Pourmohammad-Zia, N., and Schulte, F. (2022). Safety and Sustainable Development of Automated Driving in Mixed-Traffic Urban Areas—Considering Vulnerable Road Users and Network Efficiency. Sustainability, 14. source

      Section 6 mentions a proposed route designed for autonomous public transport, but does not discuss improving the service or persuading people to leave private vehicles. Searches for a shift from private vehicles and for reduced congestion and emissions found no passage connecting those outcomes to public transport; Section 2.2 instead discusses the operational efficiency of autonomous vehicles. (LLM, conf=0.74)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Cities may be able to lower the number of single-passenger vehicles on the road by implementing AVs for public transportation, resulting in lower emissions and better air quality.

    “Cities may be able to lower the number of single-passenger vehicles on the road by implementing AVs for public transportation, resulting in lower emissions and better air quality [35,65,71].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim2 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [35] Camps-Aragó, P., Temmerman, L., Vanobberghen, W., and Delaere, S. (2022). Encouraging the Sustainable Adoption of Autonomous Vehicles for Public Transport in Belgium: Citizen Acceptance, Business Models, and Policy Aspects. Sustainability, 14. source
    • cites [65] Cugurullo, 2021, The transition to autonomous cars, the redesign of cities and the future of urban sustainability, Urban Geogr. source

      The available passages are bibliographic metadata and listings of other works; none addresses whether AV public transportation would reduce single-passenger vehicles, emissions, or air pollution. Searches for those terms returned no passage stating the proposed relationship. (LLM, conf=0.72)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [71] Younes, 2022, Towards a Sustainable Highway Road-Based Driving Protocol for Connected and Self-Driving Vehicles, IEEE Trans. Sustain. Comput. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    These AV characteristics collectively promote physical activity, enhance urban environmental conditions by improving air quality and reducing noise, and contribute to healthier urban design by freeing up more public space.

    “These characteristics collectively promote physical activity, enhance urban environmental conditions by improving air quality and reducing noise, and contribute to a healthier urban design by freeing up more public space [32].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [32] Nieuwenhuijsen, 2020, Autonomous Vehicles and Public Health, Annu. Rev. Public Health source

      The Conclusions say that fully electric, ridesharing AVs integrated with public and active transport could promote physical activity, improve air quality and noise, and provide more public space. The citing sentence presents these potential, implementation-dependent benefits as definite outcomes. (LLM, conf=0.87)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Given the right rules and regulations, self-driving vehicles could make streets safer by reducing the chances of accidents.

    “Nonetheless, given the right rules and regulations, these self-driving vehicles could actually make our streets safer, reducing the chances of accidents [32].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [32] Nieuwenhuijsen, 2020, Autonomous Vehicles and Public Health, Annu. Rev. Public Health source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    AV technology has the potential to aid in climate adaptation by reducing emissions, improving urban air quality, and impacting cities' resilience and sustainability.

    “This highlights the potential for AV technology to aid in climate adaptation by reducing emissions by improving urban air quality and has a direct impact on cities' resilience and sustainability [32].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [32] Nieuwenhuijsen, 2020, Autonomous Vehicles and Public Health, Annu. Rev. Public Health source

      Section 2.2.4 says AVs could reduce energy consumption and promote a shift from fossil fuels if implemented with electric vehicles and renewable energy. The Conclusions say that, under those conditions and with ridesharing and integration with other transport, AVs could improve urban air quality. The paper does not establish that AVs aid climate adaptation or directly improve cities’ resilience and sustainability; it also cautions that their effects depend on how they are implemented. (LLM, conf=0.87)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Due to the lack of legislation, autonomous vehicle deployment and operation require some form of regulation.

    “Due to the lack of legislation, autonomous vehicle deployment and operation require some form of regulation [55,64,65].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim3 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [55] Garrow, 2021, Urban air mobility: A comprehensive review and comparative analysis with autonomous and electric ground transportation for informing future research, Transp. Res. Part C Emerg. Technol. source

      Section 3.2 describes aviation as highly regulated, while §5.2.1 discusses existing transportation-planning legislation and regulations relevant to integrating urban air mobility. Neither passage addresses a lack of legislation for autonomous ground vehicles or says their deployment and operation require regulation; searches for those terms found no such statement. Page numbers were not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.74)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [64] Hasan, U., Whyte, A., and Al Jassmi, H. (2020). A Review of the Transformation of Road Transport Systems: Are We Ready for the Next Step in Artificially Intelligent Sustainable Transport?. Appl. Syst. Innov., 3. source
    • cites [65] Cugurullo, 2021, The transition to autonomous cars, the redesign of cities and the future of urban sustainability, Urban Geogr. source

      The available passages from our copy are bibliographic information and keywords, not a discussion of legislation or regulation. Searches for autonomous-vehicle deployment, legislation, and regulatory frameworks found no passage addressing the claim. (LLM, conf=0.72)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Shared-use AVs present opportunities to lower taxi costs and enhance economic effectiveness in public transportation.

    “Shared-use AVs present opportunities to lower taxi costs and enhance economic effectiveness in public transportation [66].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [66] Metz, D. (2018). Developing Policy for Urban Autonomous Vehicles: Impact on Congestion. Urban Sci., 2. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The real-world implications of AVs extend to urban planning, impacting parking optimization, land rents, and mass transit, with potential regulatory consequences.

    “The real-world implications extend to urban planning, impacting parking optimization, land rents, and mass transit, with potential regulatory consequences [31,32].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [31] 2022, Autonomous vehicles and changing the future of cities: Technical and urban perspectives, J. Urban Regen. Renew.

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [32] Nieuwenhuijsen, 2020, Autonomous Vehicles and Public Health, Annu. Rev. Public Health source

      Section 2.2.3 discusses how shared AVs could reduce parking space and affect urban land use; Section 2.2.2 discusses possible disruption to public transportation. The Abstract and Conclusions also call for policies and regulation. The passages do not address land rents, so that part of the attributed claim is unsupported. (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Serious risks can arise when AVs are adopted for personal use, depend on fossil fuels, lead to more kilometres driven, increased traffic congestion, and occupation of public spaces.

    “On the other hand, serious risks can arise when AVs are adopted for personal use, depend on fossil fuels, lead to more kilometres driven, increased traffic congestion and occupation of public spaces.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [32] Nieuwenhuijsen, 2020, Autonomous Vehicles and Public Health, Annu. Rev. Public Health source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    These factors contribute to increased inactivity, deterioration of the urban environment in terms of air quality and noise, and reduction of public space available for social interaction and physical activity.

    “All these factors contribute to increased inactivity, deterioration of the urban environment (air quality and noise), and reduction of public space available for social interaction and physical activity [32].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [32] Nieuwenhuijsen, 2020, Autonomous Vehicles and Public Health, Annu. Rev. Public Health source

      Section 2.1.2 (Physical activity) says AVs could reduce active transport, while Sections 2.1.3.1 (Exhaust emissions) and 2.1.4 (Noise) say air pollution and noise could increase under particular conditions. The claim presents these conditional outcomes as established and adds a reduction in public space for social interaction and physical activity; Section 2.2.3 (Land use and healthy urban design) instead says AVs could free space for those uses. Page numbers were not provided in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The safety of AVs for use in congested metropolitan streets is acknowledged, underscoring the requirement for restrictions to ensure their safety and dependability before integration into regular city traffic.

    “The safety of AVs for use in congested metropolitan streets is acknowledged, underscoring the requirement for restrictions to ensure their safety and dependability before integration into regular city traffic [66].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [66] Metz, D. (2018). Developing Policy for Urban Autonomous Vehicles: Impact on Congestion. Urban Sci., 2. source

      The Introduction says AV models must demonstrate safe operation and that authorities are expected to set safety standards before general use. Section 3 adds that demonstrating safe operation on urban streets may be demanding. The paper does not establish that AVs are already safe for congested metropolitan streets; its proposed regulation of AV use in congested urban areas in the Conclusions concerns traffic, not safety or dependability. (LLM, conf=0.84)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    AVs might bring health risks like air pollution, noise, and less physical activity.

    “In terms of resilience to climate change impacts, AVs might bring health risks like air pollution, noise, and less physical activity all things that connect to climate concerns [32].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [32] Nieuwenhuijsen, 2020, Autonomous Vehicles and Public Health, Annu. Rev. Public Health source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Dedicated lanes improve general traffic safety in addition to the effectiveness of AV operations.

    “These lanes improve general traffic safety in addition to the effectiveness of AV operations.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [44] Anastasiadou, K., Gavanas, N., Pitsiava-Latinopoulou, M., and Bekiaris, E. (2021). Infrastructure Planning for Autonomous Electric Vehicles, Integrating Safety and Sustainability Aspects: A Multi-Criteria Analysis Approach. Energies, 14. source

      In §5 (Results and Discussion; page unavailable), the mixed-flow alternative performs much worse on road safety than the three dedicated-lane alternatives. The same section ranks dedicated-lane alternatives above mixed flow on traffic congestion, but it does not assess the effectiveness of AV operations specifically. The paper therefore supports the safety comparison, not the full claim. (LLM, conf=0.83)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Infrastructure investments are necessary for the widespread deployment of AVs as well as the safer and more efficient operation of the transportation ecosystem.

    “These infrastructure investments are necessary for the widespread deployment of AVs as well as the safer and more efficient operation of the transportation ecosystem [44].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [44] Anastasiadou, K., Gavanas, N., Pitsiava-Latinopoulou, M., and Bekiaris, E. (2021). Infrastructure Planning for Autonomous Electric Vehicles, Integrating Safety and Sustainability Aspects: A Multi-Criteria Analysis Approach. Energies, 14. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationcitation

    Insights suggest a significant shift in how urban spaces could be designed, moving away from centralized transport hubs to more distributed systems facilitated by AVs.

    “Insights suggest a significant shift in how urban spaces could be designed, moving away from centralized transport hubs to more distributed systems facilitated by AVs.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [76] Wiseman, 2019, Driverless cars will make union stations obsolete, Open Transp. J. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The seven themes include benefits, attitudes and behaviours and user perception, climate adaptation, climate mitigation, legislation and regulations, sustainability, and infrastructure.

    “The seven include: benefits, attitudes, and behaviours and user perception, climate adaptation, climate mitigation, legislation and regulations, sustainability, and infrastructure.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Studies related to benefits accounted for 25% of the sample, followed by behaviours and user perception (24%) and sustainability (22%).

    “Studies related to benefits accounted for 25% of the sample, followed by behaviours and user perception (24%) and sustainability (22%).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Geographically, almost half (#22) of the papers originate within Europe, followed by America (#10) and Asia (#7).

    “Geographically, almost half (#22) of the papers originate within Europe, followed by America (#10) and Asia (#7).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    The review identified seven themes and thirty sub-themes within the literature.

    “It reviews 41 articles published between 2003 and 2023, and uses inductive and deductive coding approaches to identify seven themes and thirty sub-themes within the literature.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The second screening stage excluded 106 articles, reducing the total number of articles to 66.

    “This stage excluded 106 articles, reducing the total number of articles to 66.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given

    The user attitudes, perceptions, and behaviour theme comprises seven sub-themes: awareness and education, consumer behaviour and the environment, social norms and values, attitude-behaviour change interventions, trust and credibility, user preferences and needs, and expectations and satisfaction.

    “The user attitudes, perceptions, and behaviour theme was created with seven subthemes: awareness and education, consumer behaviour and the environment, social norms and values, attitude-behaviour change interventions, trust and credibility, user preferences and needs, and expectations and satisfaction.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    The first screening stage reduced the number of articles by 270.

    “For the first screening stage, both conditions are applied to the 442 articles, hence reducing the number of articles by 270.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    The seven themes identified are benefits, user attitudes, perception and behaviour, climate mitigation, legislation and regulations, sustainability, and infrastructure.

    “The seven themes include: benefits, user attitudes, perception and behaviour, climate mitigation, legislation and regulations, sustainability, and infrastructure (Table 2).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given

    The benefits theme comprises three sub-themes: economic, social, and environmental.

    “The benefits theme was created with three sub-themes: economic, social, and environmental.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Climate Mitigation is explored in five articles, while Climate Adaptation and Infrastructure are considered in two articles each.

    “Although “Climate Mitigation” is explored in five articles, “Climate Adaptation” and “Infrastructure” emerge with a more limited presence, considered in two articles each.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    In general, the investigations covered seven main themes.

    “In general, the investigations covered the seven main themes.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Across the 41 articles, the highest percentage of prominence was for benefits (25%), followed by attitudes and behaviours and user perception (24%) and sustainability (22%).

    “The highest percentage of prominence was for benefits (25%) followed by attitudes and behaviours and user perception (24%) and sustainability (22%).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    For data collection, 12 articles employed traffic data, 18 articles conducted critical examination of previous studies, and 9 articles used surveys along with other approaches.

    “For the data collection methods, a substantial number of the studies used empirical evidence, with 12 articles employing traffic data to draw insights.18 articles were con-ducted through a critical examination of previous studies, illustrating the need to build on existing knowledge.Surveys along with other approaches contributed to 9 articles.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    Works based on AVs' traffic data are limited and there is no wide study about AVs in urban spaces, so many conclusions and results are based on limited data and hypothetical conclusions.

    “Works based on AVs “traffic data” are limited and we do not have a wide study about AVs in Urban spaces, so, many conclusions and results are based on limited data and hypothetical conclusions.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Results of the systematic review show seven different themes and thirty sub-themes, with articles originating in thirty-one different countries, predominantly in the Global North.

    “Results of the systematic review show seven different themes and thirty sub-themes, with articles originating in thirty-one different countries, predominantly in the Global North.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Legislation and Regulations and Sustainability are explored in 15 and 16 articles respectively.

    “The themes of “Legislation and Regulations” and “Sustainability” are carefully aligned, with 15 and 16 articles respectively exploring these components.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Findingnone given

    There is a geographical bias in AV research.

    “to better grasp the geographical bias in AV research”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    The systematic review included 41 articles.

    “The prominence percentage of each theme across the 41 articles (this study).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    The reviewed articles used a variety of data collection and analysis methods, including traffic data, previous studies, surveys, interviews, focus groups, simulation, literature review, statistical approach, framework analysis, and others.

    “Methods of DC and DA in reviewed articles.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Findingreasoning

    The articles highlight a significant research gap in understanding the diverse impacts of autonomous vehicles across different geographic regions, including the Global South.

    “The articles highlight a significant research gap in understanding the diverse impacts of autonomous vehicles across different geographic regions, including the Global South.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Increased access to AVs improves the welfare of workers, travel distances, and city size.

    “Additionally, an increased access to AVs improves the welfare of workers, travel distances, and city size [31].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [31] 2022, Autonomous vehicles and changing the future of cities: Technical and urban perspectives, J. Urban Regen. Renew.

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The introduction of AVs in transportation systems could result in considerable changes in travel behaviour, mode choice, and car ownership.

    “The introduction of Avs in the transportation systems could result in considerable changes of travel behaviour, mode choice, and car ownership [48].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [48] Pechinger, M., Schröer, G., Bogenberger, K., and Markgraf, C. (2021, January 19–22). Cyclist Safety in Urban Automated Driving-Sub-Microscopic HIL Simulation. Proceedings of the 2021 IEEE International Intelligent Transportation Systems Conference (ITSC), Indianapolis, IN, USA. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    AV technology could solve many of the traffic issues.

    “Additionally, AV technology could solve many of the traffic issues [47].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [47] Suganuma, N. (2020, January 13–16). Towards fully automated driving in urban areas. Proceedings of the 2020 International Conference on Artificial Life and Robotics (ICAROB2020), Oita, Japan. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The projected distribution of accessibility impacts could encourage public transportation to be superfluous.

    “Moreover, the projected distribution of accessibility impacts could encourage public transportation to be superfluous [34].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [34] Meyer, 2017, Autonomous vehicles: The next jump in accessibilities?, Res. Transp. Econ. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    In the long term, homes and workers could be moved.

    “Hence, homes and workers could be moved in the long term.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    The environmental impact of AVs is determined not only by the energy source used but also by the mode of transportation (public versus private).

    “It is critical to recognize that the environmental impact of AVs is determined not only by the energy source or combustible used (such as electric or non-polluting cars, green hydrogen), but also by mode of transportation (public versus private).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Level 5 fully automated AVs are not currently commercially available, and testing has only taken place in controlled environments.

    “Level 5 means fully automated AVs (level 5 driving automation); they are not currently commercially available, and testing has only taken place in controlled environments [16].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [16] Parkin, J. (2021). Cities for Driverless Vehicles: Planning the Future Built Environment with Shared Mobility, ICE Publishing.

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    To cause an attitude-behaviour change intervention, governments may impose incentives or restrictions on private and public transportation.

    “To cause an attitudebehaviour change intervention, governments may impose incentives or restrictions on private and public transportation [51].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [51] Lanzer, M., Babel, F., Yan, F., Zhang, B., You, F., Wang, J., and Baumann, M. (2020, January 21–22). Designing Communication Strategies of Autonomous Vehicles with Pedestrians: An Intercultural Study. Proceedings of the AutomotiveUI ’20: 12th International Conference on Automotive User Interfaces and Interactive Vehicular Applications, New York, NY, USA. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    There is a high impact of occlusions on the safety of cyclists in urban intersections, while the maximum detection range of AV sensor systems has a minor influence in the considered scenario.

    “There is, however, a high impact of occlusions on the safety of cyclists in urban intersections, while the maximum detection range of the AVs sensor systems has a minor influence in the considered scenario [48].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [48] Pechinger, M., Schröer, G., Bogenberger, K., and Markgraf, C. (2021, January 19–22). Cyclist Safety in Urban Automated Driving-Sub-Microscopic HIL Simulation. Proceedings of the 2021 IEEE International Intelligent Transportation Systems Conference (ITSC), Indianapolis, IN, USA. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Study design and conductnone given

    Emphasizing a smaller, more focused sample is a standard strategy in systematic reviews, ensuring methodological rigour and a comprehensive examination of the literature.

    “Emphasizing a smaller, more focused sample is a standard strategy in systematic reviews, ensuring methodological rigour and a comprehensive examination of the literature.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    AVs and micro mobility can improve the transportation landscape and safety.

    “AVs and micro mobility can improve transportation landscape and safety [42].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [42] Sanders, 2022, Implications for Interactions between Micromobility and Autonomous Vehicles, SAE Int. J. Connect. Autom. Veh. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The availability and prevalence of AVs and SAVs influence people's decisions about where to live.

    “This means analysing how the availability and prevalence of AVs and SAVs influence people's decisions about where to live [57].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [57] Bansal, 2016, Assessing public opinions of and interest in new vehicle technologies: An Austin perspective, Transp. Res. Part C Emerg. Technol. source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    The usage of public spaces more frequently, a greater reliance on fossil fuels, and increasing traffic congestion are potential dangers connected to the deployment of AVs.

    “The usage of public spaces more frequently, a greater reliance on fossil fuels, and increasing traffic congestion are some potential dangers connected to the deployment of AVs.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Respondents' main issue with AVs is device failure.

    “Their main issue, however, is device failure, emphasizing the importance of dependability and faith in technology.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [57] Bansal, 2016, Assessing public opinions of and interest in new vehicle technologies: An Austin perspective, Transp. Res. Part C Emerg. Technol. source
    • cites [58] Deb, 2017, Development and validation of a questionnaire to assess pedestrian receptivity toward fully autonomous vehicles, Transp. Res. Part C Emerg. Technol. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Income, gender, technological familiarity, urban residency, and crash experience influence respondents' interest and willingness to pay for AV technologies.

    “This is with respect to how income, gender, technological familiarity, urban residency, and crash experience influence respondents' interest and WTP for AV technologies [57].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [57] Bansal, 2016, Assessing public opinions of and interest in new vehicle technologies: An Austin perspective, Transp. Res. Part C Emerg. Technol. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The introduction of autonomous vehicles and other new mobility technologies could have both direct and indirect consequences on urban mobility and structure, raising concerns about sustainability.

    “The introduction of autonomous vehicles and other new mobility technologies could have both direct and indirect consequences on urban mobility and structure, which raises concerns about sustainability [36].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [36] 2018, Exploring paradigm shift impacts in urban mobility: Autonomous Vehicles and Smart Cities, Transp. Res. Procedia

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In a medium-sized Portuguese urban region, numerical modelling indicates a small rise in emissions with 30% AV penetration, but a significant 30% reduction when the AVs are electric.

    “Results indicate a small rise in emissions with 30% of AVs penetration (% of AVs in in the road network), but a significant 30% reduction when these AVs are electric; hence, this promotes a future of greener and healthier communities.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [62] Rafael, 2020, Autonomous vehicles opportunities for cities air quality, Sci. Total Environ. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Rates of adoption of shared AVs vary under different pricing scenarios and are influenced by peers' adoption decisions.

    “This is according to rates of adoption of shared AVs under various pricing scenarios, considering the influence of peers' adoption decisions [57]; it not only affects this, but also home-location decisions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [57] Bansal, 2016, Assessing public opinions of and interest in new vehicle technologies: An Austin perspective, Transp. Res. Part C Emerg. Technol. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    The rapid information sharing made possible by the rollout of 5G and other high-speed data transfer technologies will assist AVs and enhance road user safety in general, including pedestrian safety, by offering users timely access to critical information.

    “The rapid information sharing made possible by the rollout of 5G, and other high-speed data transfer technologies will assist AVs and enhance road user safety in general, including pedestrian safety, by offering users with timely access to critical information.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Although AVs would improve safety and traffic flow immediately, there is a possibility of rising demand and congestion, which might affect traffic dynamics, urban design and layout, and possibly encourage urban sprawl.

    “Although it is evident that AVs would improve safety and traffic flow immediately, it is important to think about the larger implications, some of which may have unforeseen effects.One such worry is the possibility of rising demand and congestion, which might affect not just traffic dynamics but also the design and layout of urban areas and possibly encourage urban sprawl [36].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [36] 2018, Exploring paradigm shift impacts in urban mobility: Autonomous Vehicles and Smart Cities, Transp. Res. Procedia

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Conclusions drawn from these studies may be subject to interpretation and revision as more comprehensive data becomes available.

    “As a result, the conclusions drawn from these studies may be subject to interpretation and revision as more comprehensive data becomes available.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Overlooking the Global South in AV research neglects the distinct challenges and opportunities presented by these areas, including higher congestion levels, different road user behaviours, and varying infrastructure quality.

    “Overlooking the Global South in AV research neglects the distinct challenges and opportunities presented by these areas, including higher congestion levels, different road user behaviours, and varying infrastructure quality.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The Global South has higher congestion levels, different road user behaviours, and varying infrastructure quality.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    The inclusion and exclusion criteria carefully shaped the initial selection of studies, forming a robust framework for analysis.

    “Th inclusion and exclusion criteria carefully shaped the initial selection of studies, forming robust framework for analysis.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    There is uncertainty surrounding the future development of AV technology and its integration into urban contexts.

    “It is crucial to acknowledge the uncertainty surrounding the future development of AV technology and its integration into urban contexts.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Urban sprawl is recognized as a phenomenon with long-term adverse effects on the environment, society, and the economy.

    “The sustainability aspect comes into focus as urban sprawl is recognized as a phenomenon with long-term adverse effects on the environment, society, and the economy [36,73].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [36] 2018, Exploring paradigm shift impacts in urban mobility: Autonomous Vehicles and Smart Cities, Transp. Res. Procedia

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [73] Auping, 2022, Spatial impact of automated driving in urban areas, J. Simul.

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    AVs in both private and public transport have the potential to improve road safety and increase access for older people or those living with disabilities.

    “AVs in both private and public transport have the potential to improve road safety and increase access for older people or those living with disabilities.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    The connectedness of vehicles to other vehicles (V2V) and to everything (V2X), including other vehicles (V2I), enables real-time communication between vehicles and their surroundings.

    “The connectedness of vehicles to other vehicles (V2V) and to everything (V2X), including other vehicles (V2I), enables real-time communication between vehicles and their surroundings.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    AVs navigate and make choices using a variety of sensors and communication technologies.

    “AVs navigate and make choices using a variety of sensors and communication technologies [70].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [70] Cottam, 2018, Transportation Planning for Connected Autonomous Vehicles: How It All Fits Together, Transp. Res. Rec. J. Transp. Res. Board source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    This geographic imbalance reflects disparities in resources and infrastructure and influences the scope and focus of scientific inquiries, potentially overlooking or underrepresenting challenges and opportunities in other regions, particularly the global south.

    “This imbalance not only reflects disparities in resources and infrastructure but also influences the scope and focus of scientific inquiries, potentially overlooking or underrepresenting the challenges and opportunities present in other regions, particularly in the global south.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Urban sprawl, characterized by the outward spread of metropolitan centres, can result in extensive travel times and a greater reliance on private automobiles between different city districts.

    “Extensive travel times and a greater reliance on private automobiles between different city districts can result from urban sprawl, which is characterized by the outward spread of metropolitan centres.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [36] 2018, Exploring paradigm shift impacts in urban mobility: Autonomous Vehicles and Smart Cities, Transp. Res. Procedia

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [73] Auping, 2022, Spatial impact of automated driving in urban areas, J. Simul.

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The systematic review was based on studies produced from 2003 to 2023 using the PRISMA approach.

    “It conducted a systematic review based on the studies found on literature that were produced from 2003 to 2023 using the PRISMA approach.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationnone given

    The dynamic nature of the field suggests that the identified themes and sub-themes may evolve as new research emerges.

    “The dynamic nature of the field suggests that the identified themes and sub-themes may evolve as new research emerges, emphasizing the need for ongoing scrutiny and adaptation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    The review was conducted using both inductive and deductive coding approaches.

    “In this study, a comprehensive review of the existing literature through a systemati review, utilizing both inductive and deductive coding approaches was conducted.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    Existing studies provide valuable insights and hypotheses, but they are often based on limited datasets and experimental environments.

    “Although existing studies provide valuable insights and hypotheses, they are often based on limited datasets and experimental environments.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The review focused exclusively on articles published in English, recognizing the language bias inherent in such a choice.

    “Finally, the review focused exclusively on articles published in English, recognizing the language bias inherent in such a choice.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    The review was reported according to the PRISMA checklist.

    “Table S1: PRISMA checklist.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
81 of 81

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Regulatory barriers, safety concerns, and technological difficulties prevent the AV market from being widely adopted.

    “Regulatory barriers, safety concerns, and technological difficulties prevent the AV market from being widely adopted despite these developments.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    AV technology is rapidly advancing.

    “As AV technology is rapidly advancing, there is an urgent need to explore how those new mobility services will impact on urban transport systems, including the users, the infrastructure, and the design of future urban areas.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The Global South has higher congestion levels, different road user behaviours, and varying infrastructure quality.

    “Overlooking the Global South in AV research neglects the distinct challenges and opportunities presented by these areas, including higher congestion levels, different road user behaviours, and varying infrastructure quality.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Diverse regions, especially those outside Europe and North America, have unique needs and conditions.

    “consider the unique needs and conditions of diverse regions, especially those outside of Europe and North America”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The Global South faces particular challenges and prospects for implementing AVs.

    “address the challenges and prospects of implementing AVs in the Global South”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Infrastructure investments can support AV adoption and broader sustainability goals.

    “Investments in infrastructure that support the adoption of AVs and the broader sustainability goals should be prioritized.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    International cooperation can establish regulations and standards that facilitate AV deployment across different urban and legal settings.

    “encourage international cooperation to establish regulations and standards that facilitate AV deployment across different urban and legal settings”
7 of 7

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Zhao and Malikopoulos publication year differs between table and reference

    Minor

    Table 4 dates the study to 2020, whereas its reference entry gives 2021.

  • Legêne et al. publication year differs between table and reference

    Minor

    Table 4 dates the study to 2020, whereas its reference entry gives 2022.

  • The review reports both thirty and thirty-two sub-themes

    Minor

    The abstract and conclusion report thirty sub-themes, while the Results section reports thirty-two for the same review.

  • Masello et al. publication year differs between table and reference

    Minor

    Table 1 dates the study to 2021, whereas its reference entry gives 2022.

  • Level 5 is described as both unavailable and commercially deployed

    Minor

    The introduction says Level 5 vehicles are not commercially available and have only been tested in controlled environments, but later calls Waymo's taxi service a commercial use of Level 5 autonomy.

5 of 5

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 1

  1. Kim, K. (2015, January 17–21). The Travel Impact of Metro Atlanta through Activity-Based Modeling. Proceedings of the 15th TRB National Transportation Planning Applications Conference, Atlantic City, NJ, USA.

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Makahleh, H. Y., Ferranti, E. J. S., & Dissanayake, D.
Affiliations
University of Birmingham (GB)
Corresponding author
Makahleh, Hisham Y.
ORCID
Venue
Future Transportation
Publisher
MDPI AG
Published
2024-04-07
Volume
4
Issue
2
Pages
321-348
ISSN
2673-7590 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.3390/futuretransp4020017
OpenAlex
W4394611483
Semantic Scholar
4ba642375916785daa46c4bae74ff9587b49c3bf
Cited by
55
References
64
Citations by year
2026: 24 · 2025: 24 · 2024: 7
FWCI
2.42
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Future Transportation (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • University of Birmingham Research Portal (University of Birmingham) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Funders
Engineering & Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) (code/EP/R007365/1)
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Engineering › Automotive Engineering › Transportation and Mobility Innovations
  • Social Sciences › Transportation › Transportation Planning and Optimization
  • Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Electric Vehicles and Infrastructure
Keywords
autonomous vehicles, urban transport, user perception, climate change adaptation, climate change mitigation, sustainability, transport infrastructure, laws and regulations, public transport, traffic congestion, air pollution

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-19.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-19.

Cited sources are checked by gpt-6-sol.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

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