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CRISPR/Cas9: Principle, Applications, and Delivery through Extracellular Vesicles

Horodecka, Katarzyna, Düchler, Markus·2021·International Journal of Molecular Sciences
DOI 10.3390/ijms22116072PMC PMC8200053
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Abstract

The establishment of CRISPR/Cas9 (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats/CRISPR-associated protein 9) technology for eukaryotic gene editing opened up new avenues not only for the analysis of gene function but also for therapeutic interventions. While the original methodology allowed for targeted gene disruption, recent technological advancements yielded a rich assortment of tools to modify genes and gene expression in various ways. Currently, clinical applications of this technology fell short of expectations mainly due to problems with the efficient and safe delivery of CRISPR/Cas9 components to living organisms. The targeted in vivo delivery of therapeutic nucleic acids and proteins remain technically challenging and further limitations emerge, for instance, by unwanted off-target effects, immune reactions, toxicity, or rapid degradation of the transfer vehicles. One approach that might overcome many of these limitations employs extracellular vesicles as intercellular delivery devices. In this review, we first introduce the CRISPR/Cas9 system and its latest advancements, outline major applications, and summarize the current state of the art technology using exosomes or microvesicles for transporting CRISPR/Cas9 constituents into eukaryotic cells.

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Figure 1 Methods for the delivery of CRISPR/Cas9 components. (A) Cas9 protein and sgRNA form a ribonucleoprotein (RNP) complex, which is packaged into extracellular vesicles (EVs), nanoparticles, or electroporated directly into cells or model organisms. (B) Plasmids expressing Cas9 and/or sgRNA are transfected into cells. (C) Viral vectors encoding Cas9 and/or sgRNA deliver these components in vitro or in vivo. This figure was created using BioRender.com (accessed on April 2021).
Figure 1 Methods for the delivery of CRISPR/Cas9 components. (A) Cas9 protein and sgRNA form a ribonucleoprotein (RNP) complex, which is packaged into extracellular vesicles (EVs), nanoparticles, or electroporated directly into cells or model organisms. (B) Plasmids expressing Cas9 and/or sgRNA are transfected into cells. (C) Viral vectors encoding Cas9 and/or sgRNA deliver these components in vitro or in vivo. This figure was created using BioRender.com (accessed on April 2021).CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 2 The basic CRISPR/Cas9 system and some examples of further developed fusion enzymes. (A) In its basic form, the CRISPR/Cas9 system introduces a double strand break close to the binding site of the sgRNA. (B) A mutated Cas9 protein without DNA cutting activity (dead Cas9 and dCas9) is still able to bind to DNA at the specific sgRNA-guided site and blocks the progression of the RNA polymerase, which results in the inhibition of transcription. (C) Fused to transcriptional activators, gene expression can be switched on or enhanced at targeted sites. (D) The dCas9 fused to histone modifiers or DNA methylation enzymes can be used to introduce site-specific epigenetic changes.
Figure 2 The basic CRISPR/Cas9 system and some examples of further developed fusion enzymes. (A) In its basic form, the CRISPR/Cas9 system introduces a double strand break close to the binding site of the sgRNA. (B) A mutated Cas9 protein without DNA cutting activity (dead Cas9 and dCas9) is still able to bind to DNA at the specific sgRNA-guided site and blocks the progression of the RNA polymerase, which results in the inhibition of transcription. (C) Fused to transcriptional activators, gene expression can be switched on or enhanced at targeted sites. (D) The dCas9 fused to histone modifiers or DNA methylation enzymes can be used to introduce site-specific epigenetic changes.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 3 General routes for loading CRISPR/Cas components into EVs. (A) By capitalizing on the cellular packaging routines, producer cells can be transfected with plasmids encoding the Cas9 protein and the sgRNA. (B) After the isolation and purification of EVs, they are loaded in vitro with Cas9 protein and sgRNAs, e.g., by electroporation.
Figure 3 General routes for loading CRISPR/Cas components into EVs. (A) By capitalizing on the cellular packaging routines, producer cells can be transfected with plasmids encoding the Cas9 protein and the sgRNA. (B) After the isolation and purification of EVs, they are loaded in vitro with Cas9 protein and sgRNAs, e.g., by electroporation.CC BY · PubMed Central

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Metadata

Authors
Horodecka, K., & Düchler, M.
Affiliations
Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Centre of Molecular and Macromolecular Studies, Polish Academy of Sciences, 112 Sienkiewicza Street, 90-363 Lodz, Poland
ORCID
Düchler, Markus
Venue
International Journal of Molecular Sciences
Publisher
MDPI AG
Published
2021-06-04
Volume
22
Issue
11
Pages
6072
ISSN
1422-0067
DOI
10.3390/ijms22116072
PMC
PMC8200053
Cited by
121
References
18
Language
en
Licence
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ (vor)
Funders
Narodowym Centrum Nauki (UMO-2019/35/B/NZ7/03256)

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