Carbohydrate Availability and Physical Performance: Physiological Overview and Practical Recommendations
Open accessAbstract
Strong evidence during the last few decades has highlighted the importance of nutrition for sport performance, the role of carbohydrates (CHO) being of special interest. Glycogen is currently not only considered an energy substrate but also a regulator of the signaling pathways that regulate exercise-induced adaptations. Thus, low or high CHO availabilities can result in both beneficial or negative results depending on the purpose. On the one hand, the depletion of glycogen levels is a limiting factor of performance during sessions in which high exercise intensities are required; therefore ensuring a high CHO availability before and during exercise is of major importance. A high CHO availability has also been positively related to the exercise-induced adaptations to resistance training. By contrast, a low CHO availability seems to promote endurance-exercise-induced adaptations such as mitochondrial biogenesis and enhanced lipolysis. In the present narrative review, we aim to provide a holistic overview of how CHO availability impacts physical performance as well as to provide practical recommendations on how training and nutrition might be combined to maximize performance. Attending to the existing evidence, no universal recommendations regarding CHO intake can be given to athletes as nutrition should be periodized according to training loads and objectives.
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
This narrative review argues that carbohydrate (CHO) availability can be manipulated to influence both exercise performance and training adaptations, with high availability generally needed for high-intensity performance and low availability sometimes used to amplify endurance adaptations. It concludes that no universal CHO intake recommendation fits all athletes; intake should be periodized according to training load and objectives.
Key findings
- High CHO availability before and during exercise is important when performance or high intensity is the goal: the review recommends 1–4 g/kg CHO 1–4 h before exercise, up to 90 g/h during exercise using a 2:1 glucose-to-fructose ratio, and ~10 g/kg CHO the day (24–36 h) before competition. Single-source CHO absorption is limited to ~60 g/h, while multiple transportable CHO can raise oxidation to ~90 g/h.
- Low CHO availability (“train low”) can increase molecular markers of endurance adaptation, including mitochondrial biogenesis and oxidative metabolism, and may improve lipid oxidation; however, performance effects are mixed. Burke et al. found elite race walkers on a very low-CHO diet for 3 weeks increased fat oxidation and decreased body mass but had impaired performance, whereas Marquet et al. found periodized CHO timing improved 10-km running performance, cycling efficiency, and time to exhaustion at 150% maximal aerobic power.
- For resistance training, low glycogen may inhibit hypertrophy and increase proteolysis, while high CHO availability has been positively related to resistance-training adaptations. A single resistance session can reduce muscle glycogen by 24–40%, and CHO supplementation during resistance exercise attenuates glycogen depletion, though ergogenic benefits are not consistently found.
- The review states that no universal CHO recommendation can be given; nutrition should be periodized, with high CHO availability for high-intensity sessions or competitions and possible CHO restriction during low-intensity sessions below the first ventilatory threshold.
Methods
- Narrative review, not a systematic review or meta-analysis; no primary data collection or formal sample is reported.
- Synthesizes physiological mechanisms and practical recommendations from cited studies on CHO availability, training adaptations, supplementation timing, and glycogen restoration.
- Main analysis is a narrative synthesis of evidence on high versus low CHO availability, including resistance and endurance training contexts.
Limitations
- The paper states that evidence is not unanimous and that controversy exists regarding periodized nutritional strategies, with some studies showing benefits and others showing no benefit or performance impairment.
- The paper states potential risks of long-term low CHO availability, including impaired immune function, reduced CHO oxidation and inability to exercise at high intensity, increased muscle protein oxidation, and possible effects on sleep quality and protein balance.
- Evident from the text: as a narrative review, it lacks a systematic search strategy, formal inclusion criteria, and quality appraisal; the authors also state that no universal CHO recommendations can be given, reflecting heterogeneity in athlete goals and training loads.
Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
0 of 26 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged
- Premisecitation
The anabolic response after resistance training depends on the status of glycogen stores.
“It has been observed that the anabolic response after resistance training depends on the status of glycogen stores.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [15] Lee, 2007, mTOR pathway as a target in tissue hypertrophy, Annu. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol. source
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation
A high CHO intake (10 g/kg) the day before a competition (more precisely ~36 h from the last training session) and physical inactivity ensures glycogen supercompensation.
“Thus, a high CHO intake (10 g/kg) has been recommended the day before a competition (more precisely ~36 h from the last training session) and physical inactivity to ensure glycogen supercompensation [1,9].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [1] Thomas, 2016, Position of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, Dietitians of Canada, and the American College of Sports Medicine: Nutrition and Athletic Performance, J. Acad. Nutr. Diet. source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [9] Domínguez, R., Mata-Ordoñez, F., and Sanchez-Oliver, A.J. (2017). Nutrición Deportiva Aplicada: Guía Para Optimizar el Rendimiento, ICB Editores.
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation
Depletion of glycogen levels is a limiting factor of performance during sessions in which high exercise intensities are required.
“the depletion of glycogen levels is a limiting factor of performance during sessions in which high exercise intensities are required”
- Also stated in: § 1. Introduction · plain
“When exercising at high intensities, CHO become the main energy substrate, and thus glycogen depletion is considered an important limiting factor of performance [3].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [3] Noakes, 2000, Physiological models to understand exercise fatigue and the adaptations that predict or enhance athletic performance, Scand. J. Med. Sci. Sports source
Not checked in the free run.
- Also stated in: § 1. Introduction · plain
- Interpretationreasoning
Low or high CHO availabilities can result in both beneficial or negative results depending on the purpose.
“Thus, low or high CHO availabilities can result in both beneficial or negative results depending on the purpose.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisenone given
A high CHO availability is positively related to exercise-induced adaptations to resistance training.
“A high CHO availability has also been positively related to the exercise-induced adaptations to resistance training.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- Premisecitation
Glycogen is not only an energy substrate but also a regulator of the signaling pathways that regulate exercise-induced adaptations.
“Glycogen is currently not only considered an energy substrate but also a regulator of the signaling pathways that regulate exercise-induced adaptations.”
- Also stated in: § 2. Carbohydrates and Training Adaptations · plain
“Nowadays, glycogen is not only considered as an energy substrate but also as a regulator of the signaling pathways that regulate the adaptations in response to exercise [12,13].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [12] Baar, 2008, Optimizing training adaptations by manipulating glycogen, Eur. J. Sport Sci. source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [13] Hearris, M.A., Hammond, K.M., Fell, J.M., and Morton, J.P. (2018). Regulation of Muscle Glycogen Metabolism during Exercise: Implications for Endurance Performance and Training Adaptations. Nutrients, 10. source
Not checked in the free run.
- Also stated in: § 2. Carbohydrates and Training Adaptations · plain
- Premisecitation
During periods in which CHO availability was strategically reduced ('training low') there was an increase of molecular markers related to endurance training-induced adaptation.
“Several studies demonstrated that during periods in which CHO availability was strategically reduced (known as “training low”) there was an increase of molecular markers related to endurance training-induced adaptation [31,32].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [31] Bartlett, 2015, Carbohydrate availability and exercise training adaptation: Too much of a good thing?, Eur. J. Sport Sci. source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [32] Impey, 2016, Fuel for the work required: A practical approach to amalgamating train-low paradigms for endurance athletes, Physiol. Rep. source
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation
Manipulating the endogenous (glycogen stores) and exogenous (CHO intake) availability of CHO before and/or after training sessions may be used to alter exercise-induced adaptations.
“Thus, manipulating the endogenous (glycogen stores) and exogenous (CHO intake) availability of CHO before and/or after training sessions may be used to alter exercise-induced adaptations [14].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [14] Impey, 2018, Fuel for the Work Required: A Theoretical Framework for Carbohydrate Periodization and the Glycogen Threshold Hypothesis, Sports Med. source
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation
A high-CHO diet is beneficial for endurance exercise performance.
“Classical studies have already demonstrated the beneficial role of a high-CHO diet for endurance exercise performance [27,28].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [27] Karlsson, 1971, Diet, muscle glycogen, and endurance performance, J. Appl. Physiol. source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [28] Ahlborg, 1967, Human muscle glycogen content and capacity for prolonged exercise after different diets, Forsvarsmedicin
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation
Nutritional intake can modulate exercise-induced adaptations.
“Thus, nutritional intake can modulate exercise-induced adaptations.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [9] Domínguez, R., Mata-Ordoñez, F., and Sanchez-Oliver, A.J. (2017). Nutrición Deportiva Aplicada: Guía Para Optimizar el Rendimiento, ICB Editores.
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [10] Jeukendrup, 2017, Periodized Nutrition for Athletes, Sports Med. source
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisenone given
A low CHO availability seems to promote endurance-exercise-induced adaptations such as mitochondrial biogenesis and enhanced lipolysis.
“By contrast, a low CHO availability seems to promote endurance-exercise-induced adaptations such as mitochondrial biogenesis and enhanced lipolysis.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation
A high CHO availability is beneficial in endurance exercise during competitions or in training sessions in which a high level of intensity is required.
“A high CHO availability is beneficial in endurance exercise during competitions or in training sessions in which a high level of intensity is required [8,29].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [8] Hawley, 2002, Adaptations of Skeletal Muscle to Prolonged, Intense Endurance Training, Clin. Exp. Pharmacol. Physiol. source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [29] Stellingwerff, 2006, Decreased PDH activation and glycogenolysis during exercise following fat adaptation with carbohydrate restoration, Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab. source
Not checked in the free run.
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 7
- May combine two claims. 4
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningNo universal recommendations regarding CHO intake can be given to athletes; nutrition should be periodized according to training loads and objectives.
“Attending to the existing evidence, no universal recommendations regarding CHO intake can be given to athletes as nutrition should be periodized according to training loads and objectives.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).
InterpretationreasoningNutritional periodization might be an effective strategy to maintain metabolic flexibility and exercise intensity.
“Because maintaining these strategies chronically (>3 weeks) could result in an impairment of the immune system, sleep quality, and protein balance, nutritional periodization might be an effective strategy to maintain metabolic flexibility and exercise intensity.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Maintaining low CHO availability strategies chronically (>3 weeks) could impair the immune system, sleep quality, and protein balance.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).
InterpretationreasoningIt would be convenient to start resistance exercises with replenished glycogen stores.
“For this reason, it would be convenient to start resistance exercises with replenished glycogen stores [16,17].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [16] Knuiman, 2015, Glycogen availability and skeletal muscle adaptations with endurance and resistance exercise, Nutr. Metab. (Lond.) source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [17] Smiles, 2016, Effects of skeletal muscle energy availability on protein turnover responses to exercise, J. Exp. Biol. source
Not checked in the free run.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
InterpretationreasoningEnsuring a high CHO availability before and during exercise is of major importance for high-intensity sessions.
“therefore ensuring a high CHO availability before and during exercise is of major importance”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationLow levels of glycogen could inhibit the hypertrophic response to resistance training and increase proteolysis.
“Although the evidence is not unanimous, low levels of glycogen could inhibit the hypertrophic response to resistance training [18,19] and increase proteolysis [20,21].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 4 sources checked- cites [18] Churchley, 2007, Influence of preexercise muscle glycogen content on transcriptional activity of metabolic and myogenic genes in well-trained humans, J. Appl. Physiol. source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [19] Creer, 2005, Influence of muscle glycogen availability on ERK1/2 and Akt signaling after resistance exercise in human skeletal muscle, J. Appl. Physiol. source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [20] Blomstrand, 1999, Effect of muscle glycogen on glucose, lactate and amino acid metabolism during exercise and recovery in human subjects, J. Physiol. (Lond.) source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [21] Lemon, 1992, Protein requirements and muscle mass/strength changes during intensive training in novice bodybuilders, J. Appl. Physiol. source
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).
InterpretationcitationIt could be important to differentiate between the optimal nutrition to compete and to train.
“Considering these responses, it could be important to differentiate between the optimal nutrition to compete and to train [32].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [32] Impey, 2016, Fuel for the work required: A practical approach to amalgamating train-low paradigms for endurance athletes, Physiol. Rep. source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationA high exogenous CHO availability during exercise (78-90 g/h, approximately) facilitates performance through the sparing of hepatic glycogen, avoiding potential hypoglycemia, and through the maintenance of a high CHO oxidation rate, which enables a higher exercise intensity.
“A high exogenous CHO availability during exercise (78–90 g/h, approximately) [4,5] facilitates performance through the sparing of hepatic glycogen, avoiding potential hypoglycemia, as well as through the maintenance of a high CHO oxidation rate, which enables a higher exercise intensity [6].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites [4] Jeukendrup, 2011, Nutrition for endurance sports: Marathon, triathlon, and road cycling, J. Sports Sci. source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [5] Smith, 2013, Curvilinear dose-response relationship of carbohydrate (0-120 gh (-1)) and performance, Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [6] Cermak, 2013, The use of carbohydrates during exercise as an ergogenic aid, Sports Med. source
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningTo attain a high performance level during exercises that rely on the glycolytic pathway, it is recommendable to start exercising with full glycogen stores and to supply CHO during the effort.
“For this reason, in order to attain a high performance level during exercises that rely on the glycolytic pathway (be they resistance or endurance exercises), it would be recommendable to start exercising with full glycogen stores as well as to supply CHO during the effort.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationA universal recommendation of an optimal intake of CHO might not be appropriate as there is a great diversity of goals and training loads across training microcycles and macrocycles.
“According to the last position of the American College of Sport Medicine, nutritional recommendations have traditionally focused on optimal nutrition during competitions, but a universal recommendation of an optimal intake of CHO might not be appropriate as there is a great diversity of goals and training loads across training microcycles and macrocycles [1].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [1] Thomas, 2016, Position of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, Dietitians of Canada, and the American College of Sports Medicine: Nutrition and Athletic Performance, J. Acad. Nutr. Diet. source
Not checked in the free run.
The paper relies on this without support.
During moderate or high intensity exercise, carbohydrates are the main energy substrate.
“When exercising at moderate or high intensity, CHO are the main energy substrate, and glycogen depletion is a major limiting factor of performance.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Glycogen depletion is a major limiting factor of performance.
“When exercising at moderate or high intensity, CHO are the main energy substrate, and glycogen depletion is a major limiting factor of performance.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Maintaining low CHO availability strategies chronically (>3 weeks) could impair the immune system, sleep quality, and protein balance.
“Because maintaining these strategies chronically (>3 weeks) could result in an impairment of the immune system, sleep quality, and protein balance, nutritional periodization might be an effective strategy to maintain metabolic flexibility and exercise intensity.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Training with low CHO availability during endurance exercise can be useful in periods when the purpose is to maximize adaptations such as mitochondrial biogenesis and improved fatty acid oxidation.
“Sometimes, training with a low CHO availability during endurance exercise can be useful in those periods of the season when the purpose is to maximize adaptations such as mitochondrial biogenesis and improved fatty acid oxidation.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
A sufficient amount of carbohydrates should be ingested to ensure the recovery of glycogen stores; this may vary between 5 and 12 g/kg body weight/day depending on the athlete and the physical activity performed.
“A sufficient amount of carbohydrates should be ingested to ensure the recovery of glycogen stores; this may vary between 5 and 12 g/kg body weight/day depending on the athlete and the physical activity performed [5,58].”
From Nutrition-Related Adverse Outcomes in Endurance Sports Competitions: A Review of Incidence and Practical Recommendations (2020) · cites this paper as [58]
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Enhancing Performance in Young Athletes: A Systematic Review of Acute Supplementation Effects
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Nutrient metabolism and requirements in lactation
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Consensus Document of the Spanish Nutrition Society (SEÑ) on Nutritional Strategies in Sports
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Special Topics on Overtraining Syndrome (OTS)/Paradoxical Deconditioning Syndrome (PDS)
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Effects of low energy availability on performance in male athletes: A scoping review
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Performance-Based Nutrition for Endurance Training
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Nutrition and Evidence-Based Foods for Enhancement of Athletic Performance
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Preliminary dietary recommendations for adult spinal cord-injured endurance hand cyclists
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"The Basics of Carbohydrate Periodization for Athletes and Coaches"
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An Overview of a Dietary Pattern Among Malaysian Endurance Athletes in Relation to Glycemic Index
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The potential of B-Star snacks (banana and tempeh nastar) to prevent muscle fatigue
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Nutrition status of elite Jiu-Jitsu athletes during training season
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Ketogenic Diet: Physical Performance and Metabolic Health of Athletes
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Crossover Point Differences in Combat Sport Athletes and Runners during Exercise Testing
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Aiming for equality: At the forefront of sport with diabetes
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- Authors
- Mata, F., Valenzuela, P. L., Gimenez, J., Tur, C., Ferreria, D., Domínguez, R., Sanchez-Oliver, A. J., & Martínez Sanz, J. M.
- Affiliations
- NutriScience, Nutrition & Health Sciences, 14002 Córdoba, Spain
- Universidad de Alcalá (ES)
- Nutrition in Physical Activity and Sports, University of Barcelona, 08007 Barcelona, Spain
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Universidad Isabel I, 09003 Burgos, Spain
- Human Motricity and Sports Performance Area, University of Seville, 41004 Seville, Spain
- Nursing Department, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Alicante, San Vicente del Raspeig, 03690 Alicante, Spain
- Venue
- Nutrients
- Publisher
- MDPI AG
- Published
- 2019-05-16
- Volume
- 11
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 1084
- ISSN
- 2072-6643 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC6566225
- OpenAlex
- W2946662053
- Semantic Scholar
- f5fd73b90582fd6aafdeca1c63e69ad360ed78ff
- Cited by
- 112
- References
- 85
- Citations by year
- 2026: 15 · 2025: 19 · 2024: 14 · 2023: 18 · 2022: 17 · 2021: 12 · 2020: 17
- FWCI
- 6.09
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- dx.doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Nutrients (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- LA Referencia (Red Federada de Repositorios Institucionales de Publicaciones Científicas) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- LA Referencia (Red Federada de Repositorios Institucionales de Publicaciones Científicas) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion)
- Deposito de Investigacion Universidad de Sevilla (University of Seville) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- RUA, Repositorio Institucional de la Universidad de Alicante (Universidad de Alicante) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Cell Biology › Muscle metabolism and nutrition
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Orthopedics and Sports Medicine › Sports Performance and Training
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Complementary and alternative medicine › Cardiovascular and exercise physiology
- Keywords
- carbohydrate availability, carbohydrate intake, physical performance, glycogen, exercise-induced adaptations, resistance training, endurance training, mitochondrial biogenesis, lipolysis, sports nutrition
- MeSH terms
- Adaptation, Physiological, Dietary Carbohydrates, Food Analysis, Humans, Physical Endurance, Exercise, Dietary Supplements, Carbohydrate Metabolism, Muscle Strength, Athletic Performance, Sports Nutritional Physiological Phenomena
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