Effects of sleeping with reduced carbohydrate availability on acute training responses
Open accessAbstract
We determined the effects of “periodized nutrition” on skeletal muscle and whole body responses to a bout of prolonged exercise the following morning. Seven cyclists completed two trials receiving isoenergetic diets differing in the timing of ingestion: they consumed either 8 g/kg body mass (BM) of carbohydrate (CHO) before undertaking an evening session of high-intensity training (HIT) and slept without eating (FASTED), or consumed 4 g/kg BM of CHO before HIT, then 4 g/kg BM of CHO before sleeping (FED). The next morning subjects completed 2 h of cycling (120SS) while overnight fasted. Muscle biopsies were taken on day 1 (D1) before and 2 h after HIT and on day 2 (D2) pre-, post-, and 4 h after 120SS. Muscle [glycogen] was higher in FED at all times post-HIT ( P < 0.001). The cycling bouts increased PGC1α mRNA and PDK4 mRNA ( P < 0.01) in both trials, with PDK4 mRNA being elevated to a greater extent in FASTED ( P < 0.05). Resting phosphorylation of AMPK Thr172, p38MAPK Thr180/Tyr182, and p-ACC Ser79 (D2) was greater in FASTED ( P < 0.05). Fat oxidation during 120SS was higher in FASTED ( P = 0.01), coinciding with increases in ACC Ser79 and CPT1 as well as mRNA expression of CD36 and FABP3 ( P < 0.05). Methylation on the gene promoter for COX4I1 and FABP3 increased 4 h after 120SS in both trials, whereas methylation of the PPARδ promoter increased only in FASTED. We provide evidence for shifts in DNA methylation that correspond with inverse changes in transcription for metabolically adaptive genes, although delaying postexercise feeding failed to augment markers of mitochondrial biogenesis.
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Responses are attenuated if trained cyclists complete a morning steady-state session where pre- and post-exercise glycogen content is 350 and 250 mmol/kg dw, respectively.
“although responses are attenuated if trained cyclists complete a morning steady-state session (thus suggesting that both intensity and training status are important) where pre- and post-exercise glycogen content is 350 and 250 mmol/kg dw, respectively [39].”
From Fuel for the Work Required: A Theoretical Framework for Carbohydrate Periodization and the Glycogen Threshold Hypothesis (2018) · cites this paper as [39]
The Muscle glycogen concentration section reports that the morning steady-state ride began at 349 mmol/kg dry weight in the FASTED trial and reduced glycogen by 83 mmol/kg, giving an approximate post-ride value of 266 rather than 250. The Discussion says reduced glycogen failed to produce greater upregulation of mitochondrial-biogenesis markers, but it also reports greater upregulation of markers involved in lipid oxidation. Thus, the source supports an attenuated response for some markers, not an unqualified attenuation of responses. (LLM, conf=0.83)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredTraining high and sleeping low resulted in a greater upregulation of several exercise responsive signaling markers with roles in lipid oxidation the following morning compared with when an evening meal was consumed.
“Training high and sleeping low, however, resulted in a greater upregulation of several exercise responsive signaling markers with roles in lipid oxidation the following morning compared with when an evening meal was consumed [61].”
From Periodized Nutrition for Athletes (2017) · cites this paper as [61]
Train high-sleep low did not elicit a greater upregulation of cellular markers of mitochondrial biogenesis.
“In this study, ‘train high-sleep low’ did not elicit a greater upregulation of cellular markers of mitochondrial biogenesis.”
From Periodized Nutrition for Athletes (2017) · cites this paper as [61]
The "sleep-low" strategy leads to increased activity of several exercise-responsive signaling proteins with putative roles in training adaptation (e.g., AMPK, p38 MAPK, p53).
“This strategy leads to an upregulation of several exercise-responsive signaling proteins”
From Periodization of carbohydrate intake: short-term effect on performance (2016) · cites this paper as [14]
The sleep-low strategy allows athletes to perform high intensity training sessions supported by high CHO availability while enhancing metabolic adaptation associated with low glycogen availability.
“The “sleep-low” (SL) strategy represents one such sequence of periodized CHO availability, which allows athletes to perform high intensity training sessions supported by high CHO availability while enhancing metabolic adaptation associated with low glycogen availability [14,15,16,17].”
From Periodization of carbohydrate intake: short-term effect on performance (2016) · cites this paper as [14]
The "sleep-low" strategy leads to higher rates of fat oxidation during submaximal exercise.
“higher rates of fat oxidation during submaximal exercise [14]”
From Periodization of carbohydrate intake: short-term effect on performance (2016) · cites this paper as [14]
The performance improvement in the SL group was not associated with the metabolic changes classically reported after training with low CHO availability.
“Another interesting finding of our study is that the performance improvement seen in the SL group was not associated with the metabolic changes classically reported after training with low CHO availability [14].”
From Periodization of carbohydrate intake: short-term effect on performance (2016) · cites this paper as [14]
Previous studies on training with low glycogen availability typically report higher activity of enzymes involved in fat metabolism, changes in transcription for adaptive genes, or factors involved in mitochondrial biogenesis.
“Typically, these studies report higher activity of enzymes involved in fat metabolism [12,13], and changes in transcription for adaptive genes [14] or factors involved in mitochondrial biogenesis [17].”
From Periodization of carbohydrate intake: short-term effect on performance (2016) · cites this paper as [14]
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- Authors
- Lane, S. C., Camera, D. M., Lassiter, D. G., Areta, J. L., Bird, S. R., Yeo, W. K., Jeacocke, N. A., Krook, A., Zierath, J. R., Burke, L. M., & Hawley, J. A.
- Affiliations
- RMIT University (AU)
- Australian Catholic University (AU)
- Karolinska Institutet (SE)
- Institut Sukan Negara (MY)
- Sports Nutrition, Australian Institute of Sport, Belconnen, Australia;
- Liverpool John Moores University (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Hawley, John A.
- ORCID
- Venue
- Journal of Applied Physiology
- Publisher
- American Physiological Society
- Published
- 2015-09-15
- Volume
- 119
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 643-655
- ISSN
- 0161-7567 (ISSN-L)
- 8750-7587
- 1522-1601
- OpenAlex
- W2131782315
- Cited by
- 102
- References
- 36
- Citations by year
- 2026: 4 · 2025: 4 · 2024: 11 · 2023: 6 · 2022: 6 · 2021: 8 · 2020: 7 · 2019: 17 · 2018: 17 · 2017: 7 · 2016: 12 · 2015: 3
- FWCI
- 6.92
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Journal of Applied Physiology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- RMIT Research Repository (RMIT University Library) (submittedVersion)
- Figshare (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- Novo Nordisk Fonden (NNF14OC0011493)
- Institut Sukan Negara
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Cell Biology › Muscle metabolism and nutrition
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Orthopedics and Sports Medicine › Sports Performance and Training
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Complementary and alternative medicine › Cardiovascular and exercise physiology
- Keywords
- overnight fasting, carbohydrate availability, high-intensity training, prolonged exercise, skeletal muscle glycogen, PGC-1α, PDK4, AMPK, p38 MAPK, ACC, fat oxidation, CD36, FABP3, DNA methylation, PPARδ, COX4I1, mitochondrial biogenesis
- MeSH terms
- Adaptation, Physiological, Adult, Dietary Carbohydrates, Glycogen, Humans, Male, Phosphorylation, Physical Endurance, Protein Kinases, RNA, Messenger, Sleep, Exercise, Muscle, Skeletal, DNA Methylation, p38 Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinases, AMP-Activated Protein Kinases
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