The argus ii retinal prosthesis system
Open accessAbstract
The field of retinal prosthetics has seen significant advances in the past 3 decades. Encouraging results from different groups have shown coarse objective functional improvement, using a range of technological and surgical approaches. The Argus II retinal prosthesis system was the first of its kind to receive regulatory approval for commercial use in Europe and the USA. The device is designed to replicate the function of photoreceptors in converting visual information into electrical neural signals in patients with profound visual loss secondary to degenerative retinal disease. Results from a phase II study of 30 patients have demonstrated improved performance in basic tests of visual function, object recognition, letter reading, prehension, orientation and mobility tasks. It is now the most widely implanted retinal prosthetic device worldwide. This chapter provides an overview of the requirements of a retinal prosthetic system, the results from the Argus II device to date, and an insight into some of the challenges and future directions of visually restorative therapies.
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Epiretinal implants electrically activate retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) that have survived degeneration, causing them to send artificial visual signals to the brain.
“Epiretinal implants electrically activate retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) that have survived degeneration, causing them to send artificial visual signals to the brain.”
From Precise control of neural activity using dynamically optimized electrical stimulation (2024) · cites this paper as Bloch, 2020
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Nasiatka, P. J., Hauer, M. C., Stiles, N. R. B., Lue, J.-C., Takahashi, S., Agrawal, R. N., Weiland, J. D., Humayun, M. S., & Tanguay, A. R. (2007) · ASME Frontiers in Biomedical Devices Conference (BioMed) · doi:10.1115/biomed2007-38109 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Cross-modal plasticity: Lessons from the visual system
Ptito, M. (2010) · Journal of Vision · doi:10.1167/6.13.11 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
In vivo performance of photovoltaic subretinal prosthesis
Mandel, Y., Goetz, G., Lavinsky, D., Huie, P., Mathieson, K., Wang, L., Kamins, T. I., Manivanh, R. V., Harris, J. S., & Palanker, D. (2013) · Proceedings of SPIE, the International Society for Optical Engineering/Proceedings of SPIE · doi:10.1117/12.2001750 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 2
- Foerster O. Beiträge zur Pathophysiologie der Sehbahn und der Sehsphäre. Journal für Psychologie und Neurologie. 1929;39:463-485
- Gekeler F, Sachs H, Kitiratschky VBD, Stingl K, Greppmaier U, Zrenner E, et al. Re-alignment and explantation of subretinal prostheses: Surgical aspects and proteomic analyses. Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science. 2013;54:1036
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Finn, A., Grewal, D., & Vajzovic, L. (2018) · Clinical ophthalmology · doi:10.2147/opth.s137525 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Retinal Organoids and Retinal Prostheses: An Overview
Bellapianta, A., Cetkovic, A., Bolz, M., & Salti, A. (2022) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms23062922 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Liu, X., Chen, P., Ding, X., Liu, A., Li, P., Sun, C., & Guan, H. (2022) · Annals of Translational Medicine · doi:10.21037/atm-22-2858 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“21037/atm-22-2858 to employ a retinal method in which microelectrode arrays are placed near nerve fibers on the retinal surface to activate the ganglion cells directly (19).”
MethodGraphene Oxide–Based Nanomaterials: An Insight into Retinal Prosthesis
Yang, J., Yu, Z.-Y., Cheng, S.-J., Chung, J. H.-Y., Liu, X., Wu, C., Lin, S., & Chen, G. (2020) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms21082957 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Antolík, J., Sabatier, Q., Galle, C., Frégnac, Y., & Benosman, R. B. (2021) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-021-88960-8 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Oculomotor Responses to Dynamic Stimuli in a 44-Channel Suprachoroidal Retinal Prosthesis
Titchener, S. A., Kvansakul, J. G. S., Shivdasani, M. N., Fallon, J. B., Nayagam, D. A. X., Epp, S. B., Williams, C. E., Barnes, N. M., Kentler, W. G., Kolic, M., et al. (2020) · Translational Vision Science & Technology · doi:10.1167/tvst.9.13.31 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“9,13,19,20 In addition to spatial and form vision, visual prostheses should also ideally enable the perception of motion.”
Immersive interfaces for clinical applications: current status and future perspective
Chenais, N. A. L., & Görgen, A. (2024) · Frontiers in Neurorobotics · doi:10.3389/fnbot.2024.1362444 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“In DTx, virtual retinal displays are predominantly envisioned for ophthalmic applications, in combination with retinal prosthesis or vision restoration interventions (Palanker et al., 2005; Bloch and Da Cruz, 2019; Muqit et al., 2020; Chenais et al., 2021).”
Human-in-the-loop optimization of visual prosthetic stimulation
Fauvel, T., & Chalk, M. (2022) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2552/ac7615 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Estimating Phosphene Locations Using Eye Movements of Suprachoroidal Retinal Prosthesis Users
Titchener, S. A., Goossens, J., Kvansakul, J. G. S., Nayagam, D. A. X., Kolic, M., Baglin, E. K., Ayton, L. N., Abbott, C. J., Luu, C. D., Barnes, N. M., et al. (2023) · Translational Vision Science & Technology · doi:10.1167/tvst.12.3.20 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Precise control of neural activity using dynamically optimized electrical stimulation
Shah, N. P., Phillips, A., Madugula, S., Lotlikar, A., Gogliettino, A. R., Hays, M. R., Grosberg, L., Brown, J., Dusi, A., Tandon, P., et al. (2024) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.83424 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
The impact of synchronous versus asynchronous electrical stimulation in artificial vision
Moleirinho, S., Whalen, A. J., Fried, S. I., & Pezaris, J. S. (2021) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2552/abecf1 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“For low-resolution devices with low refresh rates, such as Argus II or Orion, there is about a 2 ms window per electrode (60 electrodes with 8 Hz refresh rate); but for a high fidelity device with 1000 electrodes and 30 Hz refresh, the window is 33 μ s.”
InfluentialHemispherical Microelectrode Array for Ex Vivo Retinal Neural Recording
Ha, Y., Yoo, H.-J., Shin, S., & Jun, S. B. (2020) · Micromachines · doi:10.3390/mi11050538 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Lee, H.-S., Eom, K., & Lee, H. (2025) · IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems I Regular Papers · doi:10.1109/tcsi.2025.3531211 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“In contrast, the retinal prosthesis systems such as [48] and [49] positions the R X coil in the left side of the head (subcutaneous tissue of the temporal area) and the T X coil on the temples of the glasses.”
InfluentialA new high-resolution three-dimensional retinal implant: System design and preliminary human resultsPreprint
Yanovitch, L., Raz-Prag, D., & Hanein, Y. (2022) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2022.09.14.507901 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“The most prevalent retinal degenerative diseases are retinitis pigmentosa (RP), which is the most common inherited cause of blindness in people between the ages of 20 and 60 [2], [3], [4], dry type age-related macular degeneration (AMD), primarily affecting people aged 60 and older [3], [4], [7], [8] and diabetic reti…”
BackgroundBioimpedance Spectroscopy – Modern Applications
Urzeniczok, M., & Karpiel, I. S. (2024) · Lecture notes in networks and systems · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-52382-3_27 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
The Use of Electrotherapeutics in Ophthalmology
Luu, K.-Y., Zhao, M., & Mannis, M. J. (2019) · American Journal of Ophthalmology · doi:10.1016/j.ajo.2019.11.011 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Folch, A. (2016) · CRC Press eBooks · doi:10.1201/b12263-12 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
The Influence of Phosphene Synchrony in Driving Object Binding in a Simulation of Artificial Vision
Meital-Kfir, N., & Pezaris, J. S. (2023) · Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science · doi:10.1167/iovs.64.15.5 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Human-in-the-loop optimization of visual prosthetic stimulation
Fauvel, T., & Chalk, M. (2021) · doi:10.1101/2021.11.24.469867 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Bionic eye: An iconic innovation
Suvvari, T. K., Madhu, M., & Nagendra, S. (2021) · TNOA Journal of Ophthalmic Science and Research · doi:10.4103/tjosr.tjosr_168_20 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Liu, N. (2017) · Berkeley Scientific Journal · doi:10.5070/bs3212035498 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Influence of field of view in visual prostheses design: Analysis with a VR system
Garcia, M. S., Martínez-Cantín, R., Bermúdez-Cameo, J., & Guerrero, J. J. (2020) · Jornadas de jóvenes investigadores del I3A · doi:10.26754/jjii3a.4880 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Precision Phosphene Control Through Cutaneous Facial Electrical Stimulation
Sadrzadeh-Afsharazar, F. (2023) · doi:10.32920/23296385.v1 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Innovative Technologies To Improve Low Vision
Pitakova, I. (2021) · Bulgarian Review of Ophthalmology · doi:10.14748/bro.v65i2.7826
“Технологията е в състояние да възстанови зрение на ниво възприятие на форма [18].”
Li, W., & Qiu, Z. (2019) · MDPI eBooks · doi:10.3390/books978-3-03921-661-1
A REVIEW ON BIONIC VISION TECHNOLOGY
(2023) · International Research Journal of Modernization in Engineering Technology and Science · doi:10.56726/irjmets38447
Designing immersive interfaces for clinical applicationsPreprint
Chenais, N. A. L., & Görgen, A. (2024) · doi:10.31219/osf.io/gvs9d
Kasowski, J., Varshney, A., & Beyeler, M. (2025) · ACM Symposium on Virtual Reality Software and Technology (VRST) · doi:10.1145/3756884.3766003
Hwang, S., Jeong, H. S., & Jun, S. B. (2026) · Biomedical Engineering Letters · doi:10.1007/s13534-026-00604-w
“…with normal visual acuity, it represents measurable [27], distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, and from [28], licensed under CC BY 3.0; Panel c was adapted from [20], licensed under CC BY 4.0; Panel d was adapted from [29], with permission from John…”
InfluentialWhat we can learn from nature to restore human vision
Weener, M., Khachatryan, L., & Baziyan, B. K. (2026) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2026.1968351
Explainable Machine Learning Predictions of Perceptual Sensitivity for Retinal Prostheses
Pogoncheff, G., Hu, Z., Rokem, A., & Beyeler, M. (2023) · doi:10.1101/2023.02.09.23285633 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“) [1], this process is part of system fitting, where perceptual thresholds are used to populate subject-specific lookup tables that determine how the grayscale values of an image recorded by the external camera are translated into electrical stimuli.”
Deep Learning–Based Control of Electrically Evoked Activity in Human Visual Cortex
Moure, P., Granley, J., Grani, F., Soo, L., Lozano, A., López-Peco, R., Villamarin-Ortiz, A., Soto-Sanchez, C., Liu, S.-C., Beyeler, M., et al. (2025) · bioRxiv · doi:10.1101/2025.09.24.678361
“One prominent example of neuroprostheses is the visual prosthesis, which electrically stimulates neurons in the retina [11–14], optic nerve [15], lateral geniculate nucleus [16], or early visual cortex [17–20] to restore visual perception.”
- Authors
- Bloch, E., & da Cruz, L.
- Affiliations
- Wellcome / EPSRC Centre for Interventional and Surgical Sciences (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Bloch, Edward
- ORCID
- Bloch, Edward
- Venue
- Prosthesis
- Publisher
- IntechOpen
- Published
- 2020-02-05
- OpenAlex
- W2989190842
- Cited by
- 31
- References
- 91
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 2 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 5 · 2022: 4 · 2021: 4 · 2020: 4 · 2019: 3 · 2018: 1 · 2017: 1 · 2016: 1
- FWCI
- 4.57
- Type
- book chapter
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Locations
- IntechOpen eBooks (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- UCL Discovery (University College London) (submittedVersion)
- Contact-less Assessment of In-vivo Body Signals Using Microwave Doppler Radar (InTech) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- IntechOpen eBooks
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neuroscience and Neural Engineering
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Retinal Development and Disorders
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Tactile and Sensory Interactions
- Keywords
- Argus II, retinal prosthesis, visual prosthesis, photoreceptor replacement, retinal degeneration, visual impairment, visual function outcomes, object recognition, letter reading, orientation and mobility, regulatory approval
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