Common and Unique Therapeutic Mechanisms of Stimulant and Nonstimulant Treatments for Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
Open accessAbstract
CONTEXT Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a highly prevalent and impairing psychiatric disorder that affects both children and adults. There are Food and Drug Administration-approved stimulant and nonstimulant medications for treating ADHD; however, little is known about the mechanisms by which these different treatments exert their therapeutic effects. OBJECTIVE To contrast changes in brain activation related to symptomatic improvement with use of the stimulant methylphenidate hydrochloride vs the nonstimulant atomoxetine hydrochloride. DESIGN Functional magnetic resonance imaging before and after 6 to 8 weeks of treatment with methylphenidate (n = 18) or atomoxetine (n = 18) using a parallel-groups design. SETTING Specialized ADHD clinical research program at Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, New York. PARTICIPANTS Thirty-six youth with ADHD (mean [SD] age, 11.2 [2.7] years; 27 boys) recruited from randomized clinical trials. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES Changes in brain activation during a go/no-go test of response inhibition and investigator-completed ratings on the ADHD Rating Scale-IV-Parent Version. RESULTS Treatment with methylphenidate vs atomoxetine was associated with comparable improvements in both response inhibition on the go/no-go test and mean (SD) improvements in ratings of ADHD symptoms (55% [30%] vs 57% [25%]). Improvement in ADHD symptoms was associated with common reductions in bilateral motor cortex activation for both treatments. Symptomatic improvement was also differentially related to gains in task-related activation for atomoxetine and reductions in activation for methylphenidate in the right inferior frontal gyrus, left anterior cingulate/supplementary motor area, and bilateral posterior cingulate cortex. These findings were not attributable to baseline differences in activation. CONCLUSIONS Treatment with methylphenidate and atomoxetine produces symptomatic improvement via both common and divergent neurophysiologic actions in frontoparietal regions that have been implicated in the pathophysiology of ADHD. These results represent a first step in delineating the neurobiological basis of differential response to stimulant and nonstimulant medications for ADHD.
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It remains unknown whether dissociable therapeutic responses to medications are mediated by shared or distinct neural underpinnings.
“However, it remains unknown whether dissociable therapeutic responses to medications are mediated by shared or distinct neural underpinnings”
From Overlapping and differential neuropharmacological mechanisms of stimulants and nonstimulants for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A comparative neuroimaging analysis (2024) · cites this paper as Schulz et al., 2012
The Results (Neural Correlates of Symptomatic Improvement; page unavailable) report both common and unique changes in neural activation associated with improvement under atomoxetine and methylphenidate. The Comment likewise identifies a common motor-cortex mechanism and distinct frontoparietal mechanisms in youth with ADHD. For these medications and this population, the paper addresses rather than leaves unknown whether the neural underpinnings are shared or distinct. (LLM, conf=0.86)
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Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe overlapping mechanism between the neuropharmacological effects of stimulants and nonstimulants was mapped in the inhibited activation patterns of the left SMA that coactivated with the CEN.
“the overlapping mechanism between the neuropharmacological effects of stimulants and nonstimulants was mapped in the inhibited activation patterns of the left SMA that coactivated with the CEN.”
From Overlapping and differential neuropharmacological mechanisms of stimulants and nonstimulants for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A comparative neuroimaging analysis (2024) · cites this paper as Schulz et al., 2012
The Results (Neural Correlates of Symptomatic Improvement; page unavailable) link improvement with reduced activation in the left and right motor cortices for both treatments. But they report divergent changes in the left anterior cingulate/supplementary motor area—activation increased with atomoxetine and decreased with methylphenidate. Our copy does not identify coactivation with the CEN. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe normalization of SMA activation patterns may correspond directly to drug action given the massive presence of DAT and NET expression in the motor cortex, while also being associated with indirect and downstream effects modulated by responses of the prefrontal cortex.
“The normalization of SMA activation patterns may correspond directly to drug action given the massive presence in DAT and NET expression in the motor cortex, while also being associated with indirect and downstream effects modulated by responses of the prefrontal cortex”
From Overlapping and differential neuropharmacological mechanisms of stimulants and nonstimulants for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A comparative neuroimaging analysis (2024) · cites this paper as Schulz et al., 2012
Split into 2 atoms — 1 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredStimulants and nonstimulants act to alter the abnormal neural responses in ADHD patients through α2-adrenergic and dopamine D1 receptors to improve cognitive functions through the reactivity of the prefrontal cortex based on its high sensitivity to catecholamines.
“stimulants and nonstimulants act to alter the abnormal neural responses in ADHD patients through α2-adrenergic and dopamine D1 receptors to improve cognitive functions through the reactivity of the prefrontal cortex based on its high sensitivity to catecholamines”
From Overlapping and differential neuropharmacological mechanisms of stimulants and nonstimulants for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A comparative neuroimaging analysis (2024) · cites this paper as Schulz et al., 2012
Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 2 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredA recent fMRI study found an association between clinical improvement after 6 to 8 weeks of methylphenidate and brain activation reduction over this time in motor, IFC, and ACC cortices.
“A recent fMRI study found an association between clinical improvement after 6 to 8 weeks of methylphenidate and brain activation reduction over this time in motor, IFC, and ACC cortices (88).”
From Effects of stimulants on brain function in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis (2014) · cites this paper as [88]
The shared and distinct substrates of stimulant and nonstimulant effects may delineate a novel therapeutic target for effective interventions and could account for different therapeutic responses to stimulants and nonstimulants among individuals with ADHD.
“These shared and distinct substrates may delineate a novel therapeutic target for effective interventions and could account for different therapeutic responses to stimulants and nonstimulants among individuals with ADHD”
From Overlapping and differential neuropharmacological mechanisms of stimulants and nonstimulants for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A comparative neuroimaging analysis (2024) · cites this paper as Schulz et al., 2012
Studies that directly compare the neural bases of stimulants and nonstimulants are limited.
“and studies that directly compare the neural bases of stimulants and nonstimulants are limited”
From Overlapping and differential neuropharmacological mechanisms of stimulants and nonstimulants for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A comparative neuroimaging analysis (2024) · cites this paper as Schulz et al., 2012
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- Authors
- Schulz, K. P., Fan, J., Bédard, A.-C. V., Clerkin, S. M., Ivanov, I., Tang, C. Y., Halperin, J. M., & Newcorn, J. H.
- Affiliations
- Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai (US)
- Queens College, CUNY (US)
- Venue
- Archives of General Psychiatry
- Publisher
- American Medical Association (AMA)
- Published
- 2012-09-01
- Volume
- 69
- Issue
- 9
- Pages
- 952
- ISSN
- 0003-990X (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC12858410
- OpenAlex
- W2110045849
- Cited by
- 114
- References
- 66
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 6 · 2024: 3 · 2023: 7 · 2022: 6 · 2021: 4 · 2020: 6 · 2019: 5 · 2018: 4 · 2017: 9 · 2016: 14 · 2015: 19 · 2014: 17 · 2013: 11
- FWCI
- 10.74
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- Locations
- Archives of General Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (R01MH070935, K01MH070892, R01MH095766)
- National Center for Research Resources (UL1RR029887)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neurotransmitter Receptor Influence on Behavior
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Keywords
- attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, methylphenidate, atomoxetine, stimulant medication, non-stimulant medication, response inhibition, go/no-go task, brain activation, motor cortex, inferior frontal gyrus, anterior cingulate cortex, supplementary motor area, posterior cingulate cortex, therapeutic mechanisms
- MeSH terms
- Atomoxetine Hydrochloride, Central Nervous System Stimulants, Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity, Brain, Brain Mapping, Child, Female, Frontal Lobe, Gyrus Cinguli, Humans, Image Interpretation, Computer-Assisted, Image Processing, Computer-Assisted, Inhibition, Psychological, Magnetic Resonance Imaging, Male, Methylphenidate, Motor Cortex, Neural Pathways, Neuropsychological Tests, Parietal Lobe, Propylamines, Psychomotor Performance, Treatment Outcome, Adrenergic Uptake Inhibitors, Imaging, Three-Dimensional
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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