Understanding Executive Control in Autism Spectrum Disorders in the Lab and in the Real World
Open accessAbstract
In this paper, we review the most recent and often conflicting findings on conventional measures of executive control in autism spectrum disorders. We discuss the obstacles to accurate measurement of executive control, such as: its prolonged developmental trajectory; lack of consensus on its definition and whether it is a unitary construct; the inherent complexity of executive control; and the difficulty measuring executive-control functions in laboratory or clinical settings. We review the potential of an ecological-validity framework to address some of these problems, and describe new tests claiming verisimilitude, or close resemblance to "real life" demands. We also review the concept of veridicality, which allows for the measurement of the ecological validity of any task, and discuss the few studies addressing ecological validity in individuals with autism. Our review suggests that a multi-source approach emphasizing veridicality may provide the most comprehensive assessment of executive control in autism.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Deficits across all parent-reported domains have been reported for both ADHD and ASD.
“deficits across all parent-reported domains have been reported for both disorders (Kenworthy, Yerys, Anthony, & Wallace, 2008; Lai et al., 2017; Pennington & Ozonoff, 1996)”
From Data‐driven identification of subtypes of executive function across typical development, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and autism spectrum disorders (2020) · cites this paper as Kenworthy, Yerys, Anthony, & Wallace, 2008
In “Autism performance on new tasks claiming verisimilitude” (page unavailable), the review reports executive-control deficits on caretaker questionnaires in children and adolescents with ASD, including comparisons with children with ADHD. It does not establish deficits across all parent-reported domains in both disorders; it instead highlights a distinctive flexibility deficit in ASD. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
Executive functions and developmental psychopathology.
Pennington, B. F., & Ozonoff, S. (1996) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.1996.tb01380.x · Cited by 3,150 · cited 5× · see citing works
“Planning was originally considered the most robust deficit in autism with a pooled Cohen’s d greater than 2 (Pennington and Ozonoff 1996), but Table 1 shows that deficits in planning were observed in five of the ten studies published since 2004, with two studies showing mixed results and three…”
InfluentialDEFICITS IN STRATEGY APPLICATION FOLLOWING FRONTAL LOBE DAMAGE IN MAN
SHALLICE, T., & BURGESS, P. W. (1991) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/114.2.727 · Cited by 2,017 · see citing works
Kochanska, G., Murray, K. T., & Harlan, E. T. (2000) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.36.2.220 · Cited by 1,993 · see citing works
Working Memory: The Multiple-Component Model
Baddeley, A. D., & Logie, R. H. (1999) · Models of Working Memory · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139174909.005 · Cited by 1,374 · cited 1× · see citing works
“…control describe it as a “central process” that governs responses to complex problems and requires: determining where to focus and switch attention (Baddeley and Logie 1999); correction of errors, sequencing of actions and multi-step problem-solving (Shallice and Burgess 1991); and creation and…”
Immature Frontal Lobe Contributions to Cognitive Control in Children
Bunge, S. A., Dudukovic, N. M., Thomason, M. E., Vaidya, C. J., & Gabrieli, J. D. E. (2002) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/s0896-6273(01)00583-9 · Cited by 1,291 · cited 2× · see citing works
“…developmental trajectory of executive control through the first decades of life, reflecting the late development of prefrontal brain structures (Bunge et al. 2002; Casey et al. 1995; Durston et al. 2002; Lenroot et al. 2007; for review see Mesulam 2002), complicates assessment techniques.”
Neuropsychological studies of the frontal lobes.
Stuss, D. T., & Benson, D. F. (1984) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.95.1.3 · Cited by 1,073 · see citing works
Chaytor, N., & Schmitter-Edgecombe, M. (2003) · Neuropsychology Review · doi:10.1023/b:nerv.0000009483.91468.fb · Cited by 1,055 · see citing works
The ecological validity of tests of executive function
BURGESS, P. W., ALDERMAN, N., EVANS, J., EMSLIE, H., & WILSON, B. A. (1998) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s1355617798466037 · Cited by 932 · see citing works
How specific is a deficit of executive functioning for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder?
Sergeant, J. A., Geurts, H., & Oosterlaan, J. (2002) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/s0166-4328(01)00430-2 · Cited by 784 · cited 2× · see citing works
“In the 30 years that have followed, almost 150 articles and three major reviews (Hill 2004; Pennington and Ozonoff 1996; Sergeant et al. 2002) have been published on executive control in autism.”
Brief Report: Specific Executive Function Profiles in Three Neurodevelopmental Disorders
Ozonoff, S., & Jensen, J. (1999) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1023/a:1023052913110 · Cited by 724 · see citing works
Geurts, H. M., Verté, S., Oosterlaan, J., Roeyers, H., & Sergeant, J. A. (2004) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00276.x · Cited by 705 · cited 10× · see citing works
“Whereas performance on working-memory tasks has historically been relatively under-reported in autism studies (for example, it is not addressed in Hill’s 2004 review), there has been an explosion in the number of recent reports on the topic, which generally indicate impaired spatial working memory in autism on four di…”
InfluentialA neural basis for the development of inhibitory control
Durston, S., Thomas, K. M., Yang, Y., Uluğ, A. M., Zimmerman, R. D., & Casey, B. J. (2002) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/1467-7687.00235 · Cited by 684 · see citing works
BURGESS, P. W., ALDERMAN, N., FORBES, C., COSTELLO, A., M-A.COATES, L., DAWSON, D. R., ANDERSON, N. D., GILBERT, S. J., DUMONTHEIL, I., & CHANNON, S. (2006) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s1355617706060310 · Cited by 663 · see citing works
Barkley, R. A. (1997) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037//0033-2909.121.1.65 · Cited by 580 · see citing works
Profiles of everyday executive function in acquired and developmental disorders.
Gioia, G. A., Isquith, P. K., Kenworthy, L., & Barton, R. M. (2002) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1076/chin.8.2.121.8727 · Cited by 498 · cited 5× · see citing works
“…using the BRIEF revealed executivecontrol deficits in autism when compared to: normative data (Gilotty et al. 2002; Kenworthy et al. 2005; Mackinlay et al. 2006); typical controls (Gioia et al. 2002b; Winsler et al. 2007); and children with ADHD (Gioia et al. 2002b; Winsler et al. 2007).”
InfluentialSelf-citationEcological assessment of executive function in traumatic brain injury
Gioia, G. A., & Isquith, P. K. (2004) · Developmental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/87565641.2004.9651925 · Cited by 407 · see citing works
Ozonoff, S., Cook, I., Coon, H., Dawson, G., Joseph, R. M., Klin, A., McMahon, W. M., Minshew, N., Munson, J. A., Pennington, B. F., et al. (2004) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1023/b:jadd.0000022605.81989.cc · Cited by 391 · see citing works
Executive functions in young children with autism
Griffith, E. M., Pennington, B. F., Wehner, E. A., & Rogers, S. J. (1999) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00059 · Cited by 385 · see citing works
Neural correlates of executive function in Autistic Spectrum Disorders
Schmitz, N., Rubia, K., Daly, E., Smith, A., Williams, S., & Murphy, D. G. M. (2006) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.06.007 · Cited by 365 · see citing works
Subtle executive impairment in children with autism and children with ADHD
Goldberg, M. C., Mostofsky, S. H., Cutting, L. E., Mahone, E. M., Astor, B. C., Denckla, M. B., & Landa, R. J. (2005) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-005-3291-4 · Cited by 349 · cited 7× · see citing works
“Whereas performance on working-memory tasks has historically been relatively under-reported in autism studies (for example, it is not addressed in Hill’s 2004 review), there has been an explosion in the number of recent reports on the topic, which generally indicate impaired spatial working memory in autism on four di…”
InfluentialEcological validity of a simplified version of the multiple errands shopping test
ALDERMAN, N., BURGESS, P. W., KNIGHT, C., & HENMAN, C. (2003) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s1355617703910046 · Cited by 337 · see citing works
Sinzig, J., Morsch, D., Bruning, N., Schmidt, M. H., & Lehmkuhl, G. (2008) · Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health · doi:10.1186/1753-2000-2-4 · Cited by 264 · see citing works
Inhibitory control in children with autism Spectrum disorder
Christ, S. E., Holt, D. D., White, D. A., & Green, L. (2007) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-006-0259-y · Cited by 245 · cited 6× · see citing works
“While many previous studies in autism use multiple lab measures that tap the same construct (Christ et al. 2007; Geurts et al. 2004; Happé et al. 2006; Kenworthy et al. 2005; Yerys et al. 2007), research efforts may be better served by combining lab or ecologically-valid, executive-control measures with standardized i…”
InfluentialYerys, B. E., Wallace, G. L., Harrison, B., Celano, M. J., Giedd, J. N., & Kenworthy, L. E. (2009) · Autism · doi:10.1177/1362361309335716 · Cited by 207 · see citing works
Self-citationThe Neural Circuitry Mediating Shifts in Behavioral Response and Cognitive Set in Autism
Shafritz, K. M., Dichter, G. S., Baranek, G. T., & Belger, A. (2008) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2007.06.028 · Cited by 206 · see citing works
Executive Dysfunction and Its Relation to Language Ability in Verbal School-Age Children With Autism
Joseph, R., McGrath, L., & Tager-Flusberg, H. (2005) · Developmental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1207/s15326942dn2703_4 · Cited by 203 · see citing works
Gilbert, S. J., Bird, G., Brindley, R., Frith, C. D., & Burgess, P. W. (2008) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2008.03.025 · Cited by 158 · see citing works
High functioning children with autism spectrum disorder: A novel test of multitasking
Mackinlay, R., Charman, T., & Karmiloff-Smith, A. (2006) · Brain and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2005.12.006 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
JOSEPH, R., STEELE, S., MEYER, E., & TAGERFLUSBERG, H. (2005) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2005.01.010 · Cited by 106 · cited 7× · see citing works
“…EF N/N SWM—CANTAB Working memory Y/N Hala et al. (2005) ASD: 8.4 Age, VMA, Gender 3 experimental source monitoring tasks Source monitoring Y TYP: 6.2 Joseph et al. (2005a) ASD: 7.9 Age, VIQ, NVIQ Day–night stroop Inhibition Y TYP: 8.3 KT-NEPSY Inhibition Y Tower NEPSY Planning Y Word span…”
InfluentialBoucher, J., Cowell, P., Howard, M., Broks, P., Farrant, A., Roberts, N., & Mayes, A. (2005) · Cognitive Neuropsychiatry · doi:10.1080/13546800444000038 · Cited by 69 · cited 16× · see citing works
“The findings of Mackinlay and colleagues (2006) in a study of autism indicating correlations between some subdomains of the BRIEF, but not others, with a laboratory measure of multitasking, is consistent with Burgess and colleagues’ (1998) argument.”
InfluentialIntact inner speech use in autism spectrum disorder: evidence from a short‐term memory task
Williams, D., Happé, F., & Jarrold, C. (2008) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2007.01836.x · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Joint attention and set-shifting in young children with autism
Stahl, L., & Pry, R. (2002) · Autism · doi:10.1177/1362361302006004005 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 89
- Ambery FZ Russell AJ Perry K Morris R Murphy DGM 2006 Neuropsychological functioning in adults with Asperger syndrome Autism 10 551 1264 17088272
- Bennetto L Pennington BF Rogers SJ 1996 Intact and impaired memory functions in autism Child Development 67 1816 12835 8890510
- Berg EA 1948 A simple objective technique for measuring flexibility in thinking Journal of General Psychology 39 15 122 18889466
- Bernstein JH Waber DP Meltzer L 2007 Executive capacities from a developmental perspective Executive function in education: From theory to practice 39 124 New York Guilford Press
- Bishop DVM Norbury CF 2005 Executive functions in children with communication impairments, in relation to autistic symptomatology - I: Generativity Autism 9 7 127 15618260
- Bogte H Flamma B van der Meere JD van Engeland H 2007 Cognitive flexibility in adults with high functioning autism Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology 30 33 121 17852590
- Burgess P Rabbitt P 1997 Theory and methodology in executive function Methodology of frontal executive function 81 1216 Hove, East Sussex Psychology Press
- Cambridge Cognition 1996 Cambridge, England Cambridge Cognition Limited
- Casey BJ Cohen JD Jezzard P Turner R Noll DC 1995 Activation of prefrontal cortex in children during a nonspatial working memory task with functional MRI Neuroimage 2 221 1229 9343606
- Channon S Charman T Heap J Crawford S Rios P 2001 Real-life type problem solving in Asperger’s syndrome Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 31 461 1269 11794411
- Chevignard M Pillon B Pradat-Diehl P Taillefer C Rousseau S 2000 An ecological approach to planning dysfunction: Script execution Cortex 36 649 1269 11195912
- Chevignard MP Taillefer C Picq C Poncet F Noulhiane M 2008 Ecological assessment of the dysexecutive syndrome using execution of a cooking task Neuropsychological Rehabilitation 18 461 1285 18576272
- D’Esposito M 2007 From cognitive to neural models of working memory Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B-Biological Sciences 362 761 1272 PMC2429995 17400538
- Damasio AR Maurer RG 1978 Neurological model for childhood autism Archives of Neurology 35 777 1286 718482
- Dawson G Munson J Estes A Osterling J McPartland J 2002 Neurocognitive function and joint attention ability in young children with autism spectrum disorder versus developmental delay Child Development 73 345 1258 11949896
- Delis DC Kramer JH Kaplan E Ober BA 2000 California Verbal Learning Test- Second Edition Adult Version United States of America The Psychological Corporation
- Denckla MB 2002 The Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function: Commentary Child Neuropsychology 8 304 306 12759827
- Dichter GS Belger A 2007 Social stimuli interfere with cognitive control in autism Neuroimage 35 1219 12230 17321151 PMC1885863
- Didden R Sigafoos J Green VA Korzilius H Mouws C 2008 Behavioural flexibility in individuals with Angelman syndrome, Down syndrome, non-specific intellectual disability and Autism spectrum disorder Journal of Intellectual Disability Research 52 503 1209 18384537
- Dywan J Segalowitz S 1996 Self and family ratings of adaptive behaviour after traumatic brain injury: psychometric scores and frontally generated ERPs Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation 11 79 125
- Edgin JO Pennington BF 2005 Spatial cognition in autism spectrum disorders: Superior, impaired, or just intact? Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 35 729 1244 16328713
- Evans JJ Chua S McKenna PJ Wilson BA 1997 Assessment of the dysexecutive syndrome in schizophrenia Psychological Medicine 27 635 646 9153684
- Fisher N Happe F 2005 A training study of theory of mind and executive function in children with autistic spectrum disorders Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 35 7577 12571 16283087
- Franzen MD Wilhelm KL Sbordone RJ Long CJ 1996 Conceptual foundations of ecological validity in neuropsychology Ecological Validity of Neuropsychological Testing 91 1212 St. Lucie Press, Delray Beach GR Press
- Gilotty L Kenworthy L Sirian L Black DO Wagner AE 2002 Adaptive skills and executive function in autism spectrum disorders Child Neuropsychology 8 241 1248 12759821
- Gioia GA Isquith PK Retzlaff PD Espy KA 2002c Confirmatory factor analysis of the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF) in a clinical sample Child Neuropsychology 8 249 1257 12759822
- Hala S Rasmussen C Henderson AME 2005 Three types of source monitoring by children with and without autism: The role of executive function Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 35 75 129 15796124
- Happé F Booth R Charlton R Hughes C 2006 Executive function deficits in autism spectrum disorders and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Examining profiles across domains and ages Brain and Cognition 61 25 129 16682102
- Harris JM Best CS Moffat VJ Spencer MD Philip RCM 2008 Autistic traits and cognitive performance in young people with mild intellectual impairment Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 38 1241 12249 18064551
- Hill EL 2004 Executive dysfunction in autism Trends in Cognitive Sciences 8 26 122 14697400
- Hill EL Bird CA 2006 Executive processes in Asperger syndrome: Patterns of performance in a multiple case series Neuropsychologia 44 2822 12835 16930637
- Hughes C 1996 Control of action and thought: Normal development and dysfunction in autism: A research note Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 37 229 1236 8682904
- Johnson KA Robertson IH Kelly SP Silk TJ Barry E 2007 Dissociation in performance of children with ADHD and high-functioning autism on a task of sustained attention Neuropsychologia 45 2234 12245 17433378 PMC2000292
- Jurado MB Rosselli M 2007 The elusive nature of executive functions: A review of our current understanding Neuropsychology Review 17 213 1233 17786559
- Just MA Cherkassky VL Keller TA Kana RK Minshew NJ 2007 Functional and anatomical cortical underconnectivity in autism: Evidence from an fMRI study of an executive function task and corpus callosum morphometry Cerebral Cortex 17 951 1261 16772313 PMC4500121
- Kaland N Callesen K Møller-Nielsen A Mortensen EL Smith L 2008 Performance of children and adolescents with Asperger syndrome or high-functioning autism on advanced theory of mind tasks Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 38 1112 12116 18058213
- Kana RK Keller TA Minshew NJ Just MA 2007 Inhibitory control in high-functioning autism: Decreased activation and underconnectivity in inhibition networks Biological Psychiatry 62 198 1206 17137558 PMC4492460
- Kenworthy LE Black DO Wallace GL Ahluvalia T Wagner AE Sirian LM 2005 Disorganization: The forgotten executive dysfunction in high-functioning autism (HFA) spectrum disorders Developmental Neuropsychology 28 809 1227 16266250
- Kibby MY Schmitter-Edgecombe M Long CJ 1998 Ecological validity of neuropsychological tests: Focus on the California Verbal Learning Test and the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology 13 523 1234 14590636
- Kleinhans NM Müller R-A Cohen DN Courchesne E 2008 Atypical functional lateralization of language in autism spectrum disorders Brain Research 1221 115 1225 18555209 PMC2548303
- Kofman O Larson JG Mostofsky SH 2008 A novel task for examining strategic planning: Evidence for impairment in children with ADHD Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology 30 261 1271 17852623
- Koshino H Carpenter PA Minshew NJ Cherkassky VL Keller TA 2005 Functional connectivity in an fMRI working memory task in high-functioning autism Neuroimage 24 810 1221 15652316
- Koshino H Kana RK Keller TA Cherkassky VL Minshew NJ 2008 FMRI investigation of working memory for faces in autism: Visual coding and underconnectivity with frontal areas Cerebral Cortex 18 289 1200 17517680 PMC4500154
- Kvavilashvili L Ellis J 2004 Ecological validity and the real-life/laboratory controversy in memory research: A critical and historical review History and Philosophy of Psychology 6 59 120
- Landa R Goldberg MC 2005 Language, social, and executive functions in high-functioning autism: A continuum of performance Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 35 557 1273 16211332
- Law AS Logie RH Pearson DG 2006 The impact of secondary tasks on multitasking in a virtual environment Acta Psychologica 122 27 124 16307711
- Lenroot RK Gogtay N Greenstein DK Wells EM Wallace GL 2007 Sexual dimorphism of brain developmental trajectories during childhood and adolescence Neuroimage 36 1065 12073 17513132 PMC2040300
- Leyfer OT Folstein SE Bacalman S Davis NO Dinh E 2006 Comorbid psychiatric disorders in children with autism: interview development and rates of disorders Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 36 849 1261 16845581
- Lezak MD 1982 The problem of assessing executive functions International Journal of Psychology 17 281 1297
- Liss M Fein D Allen D Dunn M Feinstein C 2001 Executive functioning in high-functioning children with autism Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 42 261 1270 11280422
- Lopez BR Lincoln AJ Ozonoff S Lai Z 2005 Examining the relationship between executive functions and restricted, repetitive symptoms of Autistic Disorder Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 35 445 1260 16134030
- Lovass OI 1987 Behavioral treatment and normal educational Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 55 3 12 3571656
- Luna B Doll SK Hegedus SJ Minshew NJ Sweeney JA 2007 Maturation of executive function in autism Biological Psychiatry 61 474 1281 16650833
- Manchester D Priestley N Jackson H 2004 The assessment of executive functions: Coming out of the office Brain Injury 18 11 1067 12081 15545205
- McGonigle-Chalmers M Bodner K Fox-Pitt A Nicholson L 2008 Size sequencing as a window on executive control in children with autism and Asperger’s Syndrome Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 38 1382 12390 17594137
- Mesulam M Stuss DT Knight RT 2002 Principles of frontal lobe function The human frontal lobes: Transcending the default mode through contingent encoding 8 120 Oxford Oxford University Press
- Miller EK 1999 The prefrontal cortex: Complex neural properties for complex behavior Neuron 22 15 127 10027284
- Miller EK Cohen JD 2001 An integrative theory of prefrontal cortex function Annual Review of Neuroscience 24 167 1202 11283309
- Miller K Walterfang M Randhawa S Scholes A Mocellin R 2007 Validity and reliability of the behavioural assessment tool for cognition and higher function (BATCH) in neuropsychiatric patients Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 41 697 1204 17620167
- Müller RA 2007 The study of autism as a distributed disorder Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews 13 85 125 17326118 PMC3315379
- Nakahachi T Iwase M Takahashi H Honaga E Sekiyama R 2006 Discrepancy of performance among working memory-related tasks in autism spectrum disorders was caused by task characteristics, apart from working memory, which could interfere with task execution Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences 60 312 1218 16732747
- Odhuba RA Van Den Broek MD Johns LC 2005 Ecological validity of measures of executive functioning British Journal of Clinical Psychology 44 269 1278 16004660
- Ozonoff S Pennington BF Rogers SJ 1991 Executive function deficits in high-functioning autistic individuals: relationship to theory of mind Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 32 1081 12105 1787138
- Ozonoff S Strayer DL 1997 Inhibitory function in nonretarded children with autism Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 27 59 127 9018582
- Ozonoff S Strayer DL 2001 Further evidence of intact working memory in autism Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 31 257 1263 11518480
- Pellicano E 2007 Links between theory of mind and executive function in young children with autism: Clues to developmental primacy Developmental Psychology 43 974 1290 17605529
- Pellicano E Maybery M Durkin K Maley A 2006 Multiple cognitive capabilities/deficits in children with an autism spectrum disorder: “Weak” central coherence and its relationship to theory of mind and executive control Development and Psychopathology 18 77 128 16478553
- Peters-Scheffer N Didden R Green VA Sigafoos J Korzilius H 2008 The behavior flexibility rating scale-revised (BFRS-R): Factor analysis, internal consistency, inter-rater and intra-rater reliability, and convergent validity Research in Developmental Disabilities 29 398 1207 17826945
- Rajendran G Mitchell P Rickards H 2005 How do individuals with Asperger syndrome respond to nonliteral language and inappropriate requests in computer-mediated communication? Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 35 429 1243 16134029
- Robbins TW 2007 Shifting and stopping: fronto-striatal substrates, neurochemical modulation and clinical implications Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B-Biological Sciences 362 917 1232 PMC2430006 17412678
- Robertson IH Ward T Ridgeway V Nimmo-Smith I 1994 Test of everyday attention (TEA) London Harcourt Assessment 9375156
- Royall P Lauterbach EC Cummings JL Reeve A Rummans TA Kaufer DL 2002 Executive Control function: A review of its promise and challenges for clinical research Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience 14 377 1205 12426407
- Russell J Russell J 1997 How executive disorders can bring about an inadequate “theory of mind” Autism as an executive disorder Oxford Oxford University Press
- Siegler RS Crowley K 1991 The microgenetic method. A direct means for studying cognitive development American Psychologist 46 606 1220 1952421
- Siklos S Kerns KA 2004 Assessing multitasking in children with ADHD using a modified Six Elements Test Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology 19 347 1261 15033221
- Silk TJ Rinehart N Bradshaw JL Tonge B Egan G 2006 Visuospatial processing and the function of prefrontal-parietal networks in autism spectrum disorders: a functional MRI study American Journal of Psychiatry 163 1440 12443 16877661
- Solomon M Ozonoff S Cummings N Carter C 2008 Cognitive control in autism spectrum disorders International Journal of Developmental Neuroscience 26 239 1247 18093787 PMC2695998
- South M Ozonoff S McMahon WM 2007 The relationship between executive functioning, central coherence, and repetitive behaviors in the high-functioning autism spectrum Autism 11 437 1251 17942457
- Steele SD Minshew NJ Luna B Sweeney JA 2007 Spatial working memory deficits in autism Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 37 605 1212 16909311
- Thorell LB Nyberg L 2008 The Childhood Executive Functioning Inventory (CHEXI): A new rating instrument for parents and teachers Developmental Neuropsychology 33 536 1252 18568903
- Tsuchiya E Oki J Yahara N Fujieda K 2005 Computerized version of the Wisconsin card sorting test in children with high-functioning autistic disorder or attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder Brain and Development 27 233 1236 15737707
- Verté S Geurts HM Roeyers H Oosterlaan J Sergeant JA 2005 Executive functioning in children with autism and Tourette syndrome Development and Psychopathology 17 415 1245 16761552
- Voelbel GT Bates ME Buckman JF Pandina G Hendren RL 2006 Caudate nucleus volume and cognitive performance: Are they related in childhood psychopathology Biological Psychiatry 60 942 1250 16950212 PMC2947855
- Williams DL Goldstein G Carpenter PA Minshew NJ 2005 Verbal and spatial working memory in autism Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 35 747 1256 16267641
- Williams DL Goldstein G Minshew NJ 2006 The profile of memory function in children with autism Neuropsychology 20 21 129 16460219 PMC1847594
- Winsler A Abar B Feder MA Schunn CD Rubio DA 2007 Private speech and executive functioning among high-functioning children with autistic spectrum disorders Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 37 1617 12635 17146702
- Wood RL Liossi C 2006 The ecological validity of executive tests in a severely brain injured sample Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology 21 429 1237 16879945
- Yerys BE Hepburn SL Pennington BF Rogers SJ 2007 Executive function in preschoolers with autism: Evidence consistent with secondary deficit Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 37 1068 12079 17171455 PMC4426196
- Yerys BE Wallace GL Harrison B Celano MJ Giedd JN (in press) Set-shifting in children with autism spectrum disorders: Reversal shifting performance correlates with restricted, repetitive behaviors and interests Autism PMC3018342 19759065
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Is working memory training effective? A meta-analytic review
Melby-Lervåg, M., & Hulme, C. (2013) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0028228 · Cited by 1,782 · see citing works
Precise minds in uncertain worlds: Predictive coding in autism.
Van de Cruys, S., Evers, K., Van der Hallen, R., Van Eylen, L., Boets, B., de-Wit, L., & Wagemans, J. (2014) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/a0037665 · Cited by 885 · see citing works
Developmental pathways to autism: A review of prospective studies of infants at risk
Jones, E. J. H., Gliga, T., Bedford, R., Charman, T., & Johnson, M. H. (2014) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.12.001 · Cited by 607 · see citing works
Kenworthy, L., Anthony, L. G., Naiman, D. Q., Cannon, L., Wills, M. C., Luong‐Tran, C., Werner, M. A., Alexander, K. C., Strang, J., Bal, E., et al. (2014) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.12161 · Cited by 323 · see citing works
Self-citationRosenthal, M., Wallace, G. L., Lawson, R., Wills, M. C., Dixon, E., Yerys, B. E., & Kenworthy, L. (2013) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/a0031299 · Cited by 312 · see citing works
Self-citationYerys, B. E., Wallace, G. L., Sokoloff, J. L., Shook, D. A., James, J. D., & Kenworthy, L. (2009) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.103 · Cited by 299 · see citing works
Self-citationDemetriou, E. A., DeMayo, M. M., & Guastella, A. J. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00753 · Cited by 274 · see citing works
Wallace, G. L., Kenworthy, L., Pugliese, C. E., Popal, H. S., White, E. I., Brodsky, E., & Martin, A. (2016) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-015-2655-7 · Cited by 261 · see citing works
Contribution of Rating Scales to the Assessment of Executive Functions
Isquith, P. K., Roth, R. M., & Gioia, G. (2013) · Applied Neuropsychology: Child · doi:10.1080/21622965.2013.748389 · Cited by 233 · see citing works
Pugliese, C. E., Anthony, L. G., Strang, J. F., Dudley, K., Wallace, G. L., Naiman, D. Q., & Kenworthy, L. (2016) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-015-2584-5 · Cited by 218 · see citing works
Self-citationAre Executive Control Functions Related to Autism Symptoms in High-Functioning Children?
Kenworthy, L., Black, D. O., Harrison, B., della Rosa, A., & Wallace, G. L. (2009) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297040802646983 · Cited by 176 · see citing works
Self-citationRoth, R. M., Isquith, P. K., & Gioia, G. A. (2014) · Handbook of Executive Functioning · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-8106-5_18 · Cited by 188 · see citing works
Jones, T. B., Bandettini, P. A., Kenworthy, L., Case, L. K., Milleville, S. C., Martin, A., & Birn, R. M. (2010) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.07.051 · Cited by 172 · see citing works
Self-citationLawson, R. A., Papadakis, A. A., Higginson, C. I., Barnett, J. E., Wills, M. C., Strang, J. F., Wallace, G. L., & Kenworthy, L. (2015) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/neu0000145 · Cited by 169 · see citing works
Self-citationMiller, H. L., Ragozzino, M. E., Cook, E. H., Sweeney, J. A., & Mosconi, M. W. (2015) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-014-2244-1 · Cited by 131 · see citing works
Heterogeneity of executive functions among comorbid neurodevelopmental disorders
Dajani, D. R., Llabre, M. M., Nebel, M. B., Mostofsky, S. H., & Uddin, L. Q. (2016) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/srep36566 · Cited by 126 · see citing works
Vaidya, C. J., You, X., Mostofsky, S., Pereira, F., Berl, M. M., & Kenworthy, L. (2020) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.13114 · Cited by 126 · see citing works
Self-citationVan Eylen, L., Boets, B., Steyaert, J., Wagemans, J., & Noens, I. (2015) · European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s00787-015-0689-1 · Cited by 123 · see citing works
Can Bilingualism Mitigate Set-Shifting Difficulties in Children With Autism Spectrum Disorders?
Gonzalez-Barrero, A. M., & Nadig, A. S. (2019) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.12979 · Cited by 114 · see citing works
van den Bergh, S. F. W. M., Scheeren, A. M., Begeer, S., Koot, H. M., & Geurts, H. M. (2014) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-014-2071-4 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
Executive Functioning in Children with ASD: An Analysis of the BRIEF
Blijd-Hoogewys, E. M. A., Bezemer, M. L., & van Geert, P. L. C. (2014) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-014-2176-9 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
Granader, Y., Wallace, G. L., Hardy, K. K., Yerys, B. E., Lawson, R. A., Rosenthal, M., Wills, M. C., Dixon, E., Pandey, J., Penna, R., et al. (2014) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-014-2169-8 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
Self-citationChen, S.-F., Chien, Y.-L., Wu, C.-T., Shang, C.-Y., Wu, Y.-Y., & Gau, S. S. (2016) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291715002238 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
Executive function in individuals with subthreshold autism traits
Christ, S. E., Kanne, S. M., & Reiersen, A. M. (2010) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/a0019176 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Williams, D. M., Bowler, D. M., & Jarrold, C. (2012) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579411000794 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Pahnke, J., Lundgren, T., Hursti, T., & Hirvikoski, T. (2014) · Autism · doi:10.1177/1362361313501091 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
Neural correlates of set-shifting in children with autism
Yerys, B. E., Antezana, L., Weinblatt, R., Jankowski, K. F., Strang, J., Vaidya, C. J., Schultz, R. T., Gaillard, W. D., & Kenworthy, L. (2015) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.1454 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Self-citationStrang, J. F., Anthony, L. G., Yerys, B. E., Hardy, K. K., Wallace, G. L., Armour, A. C., Dudley, K., & Kenworthy, L. (2017) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-017-3152-y · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Self-citationExecutive function measures for children: A scoping review of ecological validity.
Wallisch, A., Little, L. M., Dean, E., & Dunn, W. (2018) · OTJR: Occupational Therapy Journal of Research · doi:10.1177/1539449217727118 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
<i>Uh</i>and<i>um</i>in children with autism spectrum disorders or language impairment
Gorman, K., Olson, L., Hill, A. P., Lunsford, R., Heeman, P. A., & van Santen, J. P. H. (2016) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.1578 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Faja, S., Dawson, G., Sullivan, K., Meltzoff, A. N., Estes, A., & Bernier, R. (2016) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.1608 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Rapaport, H., Clapham, H., Adams, J., Lawson, W., Porayska-Pomsta, K., & Pellicano, E. (2024) · Autism · doi:10.1177/13623613231198916 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Quantitative analysis of disfluency in children with autism spectrum disorder or language impairment
MacFarlane, H., Gorman, K., Ingham, R., Presmanes Hill, A., Papadakis, K., Kiss, G., & van Santen, J. (2017) · PLOS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0173936 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Demetriou, E. A., Song, C. Y., Park, S. H., Pepper, K. L., Naismith, S. L., Hermens, D. F., Hickie, I. B., Thomas, E. E., Norton, A., White, D., et al. (2018) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41398-018-0193-8 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Baez, A. C., Dajani, D. R., Voorhies, W., Parladé, M. V., Alessandri, M., Britton, J. C., Llabre, M. M., & Uddin, L. Q. (2020) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-019-04290-9 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Sluggish cognitive tempo: an examination of clinical correlates for adults with autism
Brewe, A. M., Simmons, G. L., Capriola-Hall, N. N., & White, S. W. (2020) · Autism · doi:10.1177/1362361319900422 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Lough, E., Flynn, E., & Riby, D. M. (2015) · Review Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s40489-014-0029-2 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Ziermans, T., de Bruijn, Y., Dijkhuis, R., Staal, W., & Swaab, H. (2019) · Autism · doi:10.1177/1362361318817716 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“Salience network” dysfunction hypothesis in autism spectrum disorders
Toyomaki, A., & Murohashi, H. (2013) · Japanese Psychological Research · doi:10.1111/jpr.12012 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Aberrant neural mediation of verbal fluency in autism spectrum disorders
Kenworthy, L., Wallace, G. L., Birn, R., Milleville, S. C., Case, L. K., Bandettini, P. A., & Martin, A. (2013) · Brain and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2013.08.003 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Self-citationYerys, B. E., Wolff, B. C., Moody, E., Pennington, B. F., & Hepburn, S. L. (2012) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-012-1443-x · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Self-citationCognitive profile in adults with Asperger syndrome using WAIS-IV: Comparison to typical adults
Bucaille, A., Grandgeorge, M., Degrez, C., Mallégol, C., Cam, P., Botbol, M., & Planche, P. (2016) · Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2015.09.001 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Anning, K. L., Langley, K., Hobson, C., & Van Goozen, S. H. M. (2023) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2023.06.005 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Edmunds, S. R., Colman, C., Vidal, P., & Faja, S. (2022) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-021-05049-x · Cited by 14 · see citing works
McKenna, R., Rushe, T., & Woodcock, K. A. (2017) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2017.00154 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
- Authors
- Kenworthy, L., Yerys, B. E., Anthony, L. G., & Wallace, G. L.
- Affiliations
- National Institutes of Health (US)
- Children's National (US)
- Corresponding author
- Kenworthy, Lauren
- Venue
- Neuropsychology Review
- Published
- 2008-10-28
- Volume
- 18
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 320-338
- ISSN
- 1040-7308 (ISSN-L)
- 1573-6660
- PMC
- PMC2856078
- OpenAlex
- W2047502225
- Cited by
- 504
- References
- 32
- Citations by year
- 2026: 24 · 2025: 30 · 2024: 23 · 2023: 23 · 2022: 23 · 2021: 41 · 2020: 38 · 2019: 32 · 2018: 35 · 2017: 45 · 2016: 36 · 2015: 25 · 2014: 37 · 2013: 34 · 2012: 26
- FWCI
- 0.79
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Neuropsychology Review (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health
- Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (P30HD40677, T32HD046388, P30HD040677)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Autism Spectrum Disorder Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Keywords
- executive function, autism spectrum disorder, ecological validity, veridicality, executive function assessment, multi-source assessment, neuropsychological assessment
- MeSH terms
- Autistic Disorder, Humans, Neuropsychological Tests, Problem Solving, Social Environment
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
