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Persistent psychopathology and neurocognitive impairment in COVID-19 survivors: Effect of inflammatory biomarkers at three-month follow-up
Open accessAbstract
COVID-19 outbreak is associated with mental health implications during viral infection and at short-term follow-up. Data on psychiatric and cognitive sequelae at medium-term follow-up are still lacking. During an ongoing prospective cohort study, the psychopathological and cognitive status of 226 COVID-19 pneumonia survivors (149 male, mean age 58) were prospectively evaluated one and three months after hospital discharge. Psychiatric clinical interview, self-report questionnaires, and neuropsychological profiling of verbal memory, working memory, psychomotor coordination, executive functions, attention and information processing, and verbal fluency were performed. Three months after discharge from the hospital, 35.8% still self-rated symptoms in the clinical range in at least one psychopathological dimension. We observed persistent depressive symptomatology, while PTSD, anxiety, and insomnia decreased during follow-up. Sex, previous psychiatric history, and the presence of depression at one month affected the depressive symptomatology at three months. Regardless of clinical physical severity, 78% of the sample showed poor performances in at least one cognitive domain, with executive functions and psychomotor coordination being impaired in 50% and 57% of the sample. Baseline systemic immune-inflammation index (SII), which reflects the immune response and systemic inflammation based on peripheral lymphocyte, neutrophil, and platelet counts, predicted self-rated depressive symptomatology and cognitive impairment at three-months follow-up; and changes of SII predicted changes of depression during follow-up. Neurocognitive impairments associated with severity of depressive psychopathology, and processing speed, verbal memory and fluency, and psychomotor coordination were predicted by baseline SII. We hypothesize that COVID-19 could result in prolonged systemic inflammation that predisposes patients to persistent depression and associated neurocognitive dysfunction. The linkage between inflammation, depression, and neurocognition in patients with COVID-19 should be investigated in long-term longitudinal studies, to better personalize treatment options for COVID-19 survivors.
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In the paper
“We observed persistent depressive symptomatology, while PTSD, anxiety, and insomnia decreased during follow-up.”
- Also stated in: § Psychopathology and need for treatment · plain
“From the one-month to the three-month follow-up, patients showed a significant decrease over time of PTSD symptoms (IES-R: F = 21.29, p = 0.001; PCL-5: F = 9.07, p = 0.003), anxiety (STAI-state: F = 11.28, p = 0.001), and insomnia (WHIIRS: F = 9.36, p = 0.003), irrespectively of sex and previous psychiatric history”
§ Persistent psychopathology and neurocognitive impairment in COVID-19 survivors: Effect of inflammatory biomarkers at three-month follow-up > Abstract
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In the paper
“In contrast, depression (according to ZSDS and BDI) did not significantly change; and obsessive–compulsive symptomatology significantly worsened (F = 4.84, p = 0.030) with no effect of sex and psychiatric history”
§ Persistent psychopathology and neurocognitive impairment in COVID-19 survivors: Effect of inflammatory biomarkers at three-month follow-up > Results > Psychopathology and need for treatment
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We observed persistent depressive symptomatology, while PTSD, anxiety, and insomnia decreased during follow-up.”
- Also stated in: § Psychopathology and need for treatment · plain
“From the one-month to the three-month follow-up, patients showed a significant decrease over time of PTSD symptoms (IES-R: F = 21.29, p = 0.001; PCL-5: F = 9.07, p = 0.003)”
§ Persistent psychopathology and neurocognitive impairment in COVID-19 survivors: Effect of inflammatory biomarkers at three-month follow-up > Abstract
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Also stated in: § Psychopathology and need for treatment · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We observed persistent depressive symptomatology, while PTSD, anxiety, and insomnia decreased during follow-up.”
- Also stated in: § Psychopathology and need for treatment · plain
“From the one-month to the three-month follow-up, patients showed a significant decrease over time of PTSD symptoms (IES-R: F = 21.29, p = 0.001; PCL-5: F = 9.07, p = 0.003), anxiety (STAI-state: F = 11.28, p = 0.001), and insomnia (WHIIRS: F = 9.36, p = 0.003), irrespectively of sex and previous psychiatric history”
§ Persistent psychopathology and neurocognitive impairment in COVID-19 survivors: Effect of inflammatory biomarkers at three-month follow-up > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Also stated in: § Psychopathology and need for treatment · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast, depression (according to ZSDS and BDI) did not significantly change”
§ Persistent psychopathology and neurocognitive impairment in COVID-19 survivors: Effect of inflammatory biomarkers at three-month follow-up > Results > Psychopathology and need for treatment
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In the paper
“Three months after discharge from the hospital, 35.8% still self-rated symptoms in the clinical range in at least one psychopathological dimension.”
- Also stated in: § Psychopathology and need for treatment · plain
“Three months after hospital discharge 81/226 patients (35.8%) self-rated symptoms in the clinical range in at least one psychopathological dimension”
§ Persistent psychopathology and neurocognitive impairment in COVID-19 survivors: Effect of inflammatory biomarkers at three-month follow-up > Abstract
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In the paper
“the latter also influenced by the main effect of SII (χ2 = 7.636, p = 0.0057)”
§ Persistent psychopathology and neurocognitive impairment in COVID-19 survivors: Effect of inflammatory biomarkers at three-month follow-up > Results > Effect of inflammatory biomarkers
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In the paper
“but not in less severe patients treated at home, SII associated with worse BDI and ZSDS scores correcting for sex and age”
§ Persistent psychopathology and neurocognitive impairment in COVID-19 survivors: Effect of inflammatory biomarkers at three-month follow-up > Results > Effect of inflammatory biomarkers
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In the paper
“Neurocognitive impairments associated with severity of depressive psychopathology, and processing speed, verbal memory and fluency, and psychomotor coordination were predicted by baseline SII.”
§ Persistent psychopathology and neurocognitive impairment in COVID-19 survivors: Effect of inflammatory biomarkers at three-month follow-up > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Only 25 patients (19%) showed equivalent scores within the normal range in all domains”
§ Persistent psychopathology and neurocognitive impairment in COVID-19 survivors: Effect of inflammatory biomarkers at three-month follow-up > Results > Neurocognitive functioning
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- It may state two separate claims as one. 27
- The quote only partly states this claim. 2
- Probably not a substantial claim. 33
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Inspection of data (Fig. 1 ) shows highly dispersed depression ratings at low levels of inflammation, with more severe symptoms at higher levels of inflammation.”
§ Persistent psychopathology and neurocognitive impairment in COVID-19 survivors: Effect of inflammatory biomarkers at three-month follow-up > Results > Effect of inflammatory biomarkers
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Overall, 9% of patients with no previous psychiatric history and 32% of patients with positive previous psychiatric history were prescribed psychotropic drugs (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors alone, or combined with sleep-inducing benzodiazepines).”
§ Persistent psychopathology and neurocognitive impairment in COVID-19 survivors: Effect of inflammatory biomarkers at three-month follow-up > Results > Psychopathology and need for treatment
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“patients who showed a marked decrease of SII also showed a decrease of depression severity, while patients who showed minor changes of SII showed persistent or worsening depression.”
§ Persistent psychopathology and neurocognitive impairment in COVID-19 survivors: Effect of inflammatory biomarkers at three-month follow-up > Results > Effect of inflammatory biomarkers
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Sex, previous psychiatric history, and the presence of depression at one month affected the depressive symptomatology at three months.”
- Also stated in: § Psychopathology and need for treatment · plain
“in patients with previous lifetime psychiatric history (ZSDS: β = 0.15, F = 4.66, p = 0.32; BDI-13: β = 0.23, F = 10.65, p = 0.001)”
§ Persistent psychopathology and neurocognitive impairment in COVID-19 survivors: Effect of inflammatory biomarkers at three-month follow-up > Abstract
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- Also stated in: § Psychopathology and need for treatment · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A GLZM analysis of the effects of SII at hospital admission on severity of depression at three months, also considering sex, hospitalization, and age as factors, showed that best performing models according to AIC always included SII and significantly explained the variation of depression severity (χ2 = 56.536, p < 0.0001 for BDI; χ2 = 42.417, p < 0.0001 for ZSDS index scores).”
§ Persistent psychopathology and neurocognitive impairment in COVID-19 survivors: Effect of inflammatory biomarkers at three-month follow-up > Results > Effect of inflammatory biomarkers
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“other symptoms probably more related to acute psychological stressors such as PTSD, insomnia, and anxiety decrease over time”
§ Persistent psychopathology and neurocognitive impairment in COVID-19 survivors: Effect of inflammatory biomarkers at three-month follow-up > Conclusions
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes? Based: unclearIt may state two separate claims as one. The quote only partly states this claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“attention and information processing, verbal memory, and psychomotor coordination were among the affected domains”
§ Persistent psychopathology and neurocognitive impairment in COVID-19 survivors: Effect of inflammatory biomarkers at three-month follow-up > Discussion
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In the paper
“we observed that females, patients with positive psychiatric history, patients with shorter hospitalization, and patients who presented psychopathology at one-month follow-up showed higher depressive symptomatology (Mazza et al., 2020)”
§ Persistent psychopathology and neurocognitive impairment in COVID-19 survivors: Effect of inflammatory biomarkers at three-month follow-up > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Mazza et al., 2020 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Consistently with previous literature, we observed a high rate of cognitive deficits in COVID-19 survivors at three months, irrespective of medical severity of the illness, with only 22% of the sample showing a good performance in all the investigated domains.”
§ Persistent psychopathology and neurocognitive impairment in COVID-19 survivors: Effect of inflammatory biomarkers at three-month follow-up > Discussion
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What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“When appropriate, levels of significance were corrected for multiple comparisons with the method of the adaptive linear step-up procedures that control the FDR and q-values (FDR-adjusted p-value) were considered.”
§ Persistent psychopathology and neurocognitive impairment in COVID-19 survivors: Effect of inflammatory biomarkers at three-month follow-up > Material and methods > Statistical analyses
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Validated self-report questionnaires were used to assess psychopathology: Impact of Event Scale - Revised (IES-R) (Creamer et al., 2003), PTSD Checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5) (Armour et al., 2016), Zung Self-Rating Depression Scale (ZSDS) (Zung, 1965), 13-item Beck’s Depression Inventory (BDI-13) (Beck and Steer, 1984), State-Trait Anxiety Inventory form Y (STAI-Y) (Vigneau and Cormier, 2008), Women’s”
§ Persistent psychopathology and neurocognitive impairment in COVID-19 survivors: Effect of inflammatory biomarkers at three-month follow-up > Material and methods > Clinical and neuropsychological assessment
What the sources say
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What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The three-month follow-up cohort did not differ from the drop-out group and from the initial cohort in terms of sociodemographic characteristics, clinical severity, and one-month psychopathology after False Discovery Rate (FDR) correction (See Supplementary material).”
§ Persistent psychopathology and neurocognitive impairment in COVID-19 survivors: Effect of inflammatory biomarkers at three-month follow-up > Material and methods > Design and study population
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In the paper
“Considering that domain scores were adjusted according to normative Italian scores for the BACS subtests in patients aged 18–70 years, we did not perform cognitive assessment in patients older than 70 years (Anselmetti et al., 2008).”
§ Persistent psychopathology and neurocognitive impairment in COVID-19 survivors: Effect of inflammatory biomarkers at three-month follow-up > Material and methods > Clinical and neuropsychological assessment
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Anselmetti et al., 2008 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedn = 130Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Emerging data show that COVID-19 outbreak is associated with delirium, fatigue, confusion, depression, anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), obsessive–compulsive symptoms, and insomnia in the context of acute viral infection or at short-term follow-up after clinical recovery”
§ Persistent psychopathology and neurocognitive impairment in COVID-19 survivors: Effect of inflammatory biomarkers at three-month follow-up > Introduction
What the sources say
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The host immune response to SARS-CoV-2 infection, the persistent psychological stress before and during infection (Korman et al., 2020, Vai et al., 2020), and a possible direct viral infections of the central nervous system represent possible mechanisms to induce neuropsychiatric sequelae (Troyer et al., 2020).”
§ Persistent psychopathology and neurocognitive impairment in COVID-19 survivors: Effect of inflammatory biomarkers at three-month follow-up > Introduction
What the sources say
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In the paper
“T helper (Th)-1 cytokines, including Interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, Interferon (IFN)-γ, Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF)-α, CXCL10, and CCL2; and Th-2 cytokines, including IL-4, IL-10, and IL-1 receptor antagonist are all elevated in the serum of COVID-19 patients (Coperchini et al., 2020) in a “cytokine storm” typically associated with the illness.”
§ Persistent psychopathology and neurocognitive impairment in COVID-19 survivors: Effect of inflammatory biomarkers at three-month follow-up > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Coperchini et al., 2020 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Peripheral cytokines involved in the host anti-viral response may elicit psychiatric symptoms by precipitating inflammation in the periphery and in central nervous system (CNS) (Dantzer, 2018).”
§ Persistent psychopathology and neurocognitive impairment in COVID-19 survivors: Effect of inflammatory biomarkers at three-month follow-up > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Dantzer, 2018 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Moreover, significant stressors such as fear of severe and unknown disease, loneliness, stigma, and the denial contribute to widespread emotional distress and increased risk for psychiatric illness in COVID-19 patients (Pfefferbaum and North, 2020).”
§ Persistent psychopathology and neurocognitive impairment in COVID-19 survivors: Effect of inflammatory biomarkers at three-month follow-up > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Pfefferbaum and North, 2020 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A parallel decrease of PTSD, anxiety and insomnia over time suggests specific long lasting depressive sequelae in COVID-19 survivors.”
§ Persistent psychopathology and neurocognitive impairment in COVID-19 survivors: Effect of inflammatory biomarkers at three-month follow-up > Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Higher immune/inflammatory setpoints with higher circulating biomarkers of inflammation are observed in mood disorders in the absence of known triggering factors, and are currently investigated as underpinning pathogenetic mechanisms for depressive psychopathology (Gibney and Drexhage, 2013, Grosse et al., 2015, Poletti et al., 2020b).”
§ Persistent psychopathology and neurocognitive impairment in COVID-19 survivors: Effect of inflammatory biomarkers at three-month follow-up > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Gibney and Drexhage, 2013
- Not checked yetcites Grosse et al., 2015 source
- Not checked yetcites Poletti et al., 2020b
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The quality of the statistical model was checked using the entropy maximization principle of the Akaike information criterion (AIC) (Akaike, 1974).”
§ Persistent psychopathology and neurocognitive impairment in COVID-19 survivors: Effect of inflammatory biomarkers at three-month follow-up > Material and methods > Statistical analyses
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Akaike, 1974 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“other symptoms probably more related to acute psychological stressors such as PTSD, insomnia, and anxiety”
§ Persistent psychopathology and neurocognitive impairment in COVID-19 survivors: Effect of inflammatory biomarkers at three-month follow-up > Conclusions
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes? Based: unclearIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“This finding is consistent with the reported higher depression in convalescent COVID-19 patients with higher NLR (Yuan et al., 2020).”
§ Persistent psychopathology and neurocognitive impairment in COVID-19 survivors: Effect of inflammatory biomarkers at three-month follow-up > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Yuan et al., 2020 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“In COVID-19, a dysexecutive syndrome in a third of survivors was described (Helms et al., 2020)”
§ Persistent psychopathology and neurocognitive impairment in COVID-19 survivors: Effect of inflammatory biomarkers at three-month follow-up > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Helms et al., 2020 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“We also observed a protective effect against depression of cytokine-blocking agents (anakinra, a recombinant version of the human IL-1β receptor antagonist, and tocilizumab, a monoclonal antibody targeting the IL-6 receptor), possibly associated with their effect in dampening SII, in hospitalized male patients surviving severe, life-threatening COVID-19 (Benedetti et al., 2020b).”
§ Persistent psychopathology and neurocognitive impairment in COVID-19 survivors: Effect of inflammatory biomarkers at three-month follow-up > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Benedetti et al., 2020b
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The limited health care resources and patient’s compliance related to the clinical setting forced us to choose an unstructured interview format instead of a structured clinical interview.”
§ Persistent psychopathology and neurocognitive impairment in COVID-19 survivors: Effect of inflammatory biomarkers at three-month follow-up > Discussion
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“and of IL-8, IL-10, TNF-α, IFN-γ with white matter (WM) microstructure, with levels of inflammatory cytokines being inversely related with measures of WM integrity (Benedetti et al., 2016)”
§ Persistent psychopathology and neurocognitive impairment in COVID-19 survivors: Effect of inflammatory biomarkers at three-month follow-up > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Benedetti et al., 2016 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Considering together three complementary cells mediating different immune or inflammatory pathways, SII is less affected by confounding conditions, and more predictive in evaluating chronic systemic inflammatory status than neutrophils, platelets or lymphocytes separately (Gibson et al., 2007).”
§ Persistent psychopathology and neurocognitive impairment in COVID-19 survivors: Effect of inflammatory biomarkers at three-month follow-up > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Gibson et al., 2007 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Platelets act as a nonspecific early inflammatory marker, mediating endothelial permeability and drawing neutrophils and macrophages and their effector functions.
In the paper
“as well as cognitive dysfunction in sustained attention domain possibly linked to the underlying inflammatory processes measured with CRP (Zhou et al., 2020a).”
§ Persistent psychopathology and neurocognitive impairment in COVID-19 survivors: Effect of inflammatory biomarkers at three-month follow-up > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Zhou et al., 2020a
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Many studies have implied that inflammation activation is inextricably linked to cognitive dysfunction suggesting a primary role of IL-1β, IL-6, IL-18, and TNF-α (Beydoun et al., 2019, Gorelick, 2010, McAfoose and Baune, 2009).”
§ Persistent psychopathology and neurocognitive impairment in COVID-19 survivors: Effect of inflammatory biomarkers at three-month follow-up > Discussion
What the sources say
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“In this context, we have previously found that higher inflammation, quantified by SII, is associated with higher depression in COVID-19 survivors (Mazza et al., 2020).”
§ Persistent psychopathology and neurocognitive impairment in COVID-19 survivors: Effect of inflammatory biomarkers at three-month follow-up > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Mazza et al., 2020 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“the lifetime speed of information processing closely associates with WM microstructure in humans and in animal models (Bartzokis et al., 2012, Kochunov et al., 2007, Lu et al., 2013)”
§ Persistent psychopathology and neurocognitive impairment in COVID-19 survivors: Effect of inflammatory biomarkers at three-month follow-up > Discussion
What the sources say
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Recently, elevated NLR was described in mild cognitive impairment, while platelet/lymphocyte ratio and SII associated with risk of dementia in the general population (An et al., 2019, van der Willik et al., 2019).”
§ Persistent psychopathology and neurocognitive impairment in COVID-19 survivors: Effect of inflammatory biomarkers at three-month follow-up > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites An et al., 2019
- Not checked yetcites van der Willik et al., 2019 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“We also associated this WM phenotype with neurocognitive dysfunctions (Poletti et al., 2015)”
§ Persistent psychopathology and neurocognitive impairment in COVID-19 survivors: Effect of inflammatory biomarkers at three-month follow-up > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Poletti et al., 2015 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“In patients with a depressive episode in course of Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) or Bipolar Disorder (BD), we have previously reported an association of peripheral IL-8, TNF-α, CCL2, CCL4 with cortical thickness (Poletti et al., 2019)”
§ Persistent psychopathology and neurocognitive impairment in COVID-19 survivors: Effect of inflammatory biomarkers at three-month follow-up > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Poletti et al., 2019 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“of IL‐1β, IL-9, CCL5 with brain glutamate, N-acetylaspartate, and Myo-Inositol levels (Poletti et al., 2020a)”
§ Persistent psychopathology and neurocognitive impairment in COVID-19 survivors: Effect of inflammatory biomarkers at three-month follow-up > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Poletti et al., 2020a
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Neutrophils are critical for starting and regulating the innate immune defense through phagocytosis, apoptotic action, chemotactic role, oxidative stress, and secretion of inflammatory mediators (Nathan, 2006).”
§ Persistent psychopathology and neurocognitive impairment in COVID-19 survivors: Effect of inflammatory biomarkers at three-month follow-up > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Nathan, 2006 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“we can surmise that subtle effects on structural and functional brain connectivity could mediate the detrimental effects of COVID-19 on neurocognition”
§ Persistent psychopathology and neurocognitive impairment in COVID-19 survivors: Effect of inflammatory biomarkers at three-month follow-up > Discussion
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“with levels of inflammatory cytokines being inversely related with measures of WM integrity (Benedetti et al., 2016)”
§ Persistent psychopathology and neurocognitive impairment in COVID-19 survivors: Effect of inflammatory biomarkers at three-month follow-up > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Benedetti et al., 2016 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These effects were influenced both, by the presence of psychopathology, and by systemic inflammation, thus confirming the connection between depression, inflammation, and cognition.”
§ Persistent psychopathology and neurocognitive impairment in COVID-19 survivors: Effect of inflammatory biomarkers at three-month follow-up > Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Depressed patients are characterized by higher levels of cytokines when compared to healthy controls with consistent results in literature when considering IL-1β, IL-6, IL-10, CCL2, TNF-α, and transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) (Enache et al., 2019, Eyre et al., 2016, Howren et al., 2009, Kohler et al., 2017, Poletti et al., 2020b).”
§ Persistent psychopathology and neurocognitive impairment in COVID-19 survivors: Effect of inflammatory biomarkers at three-month follow-up > Discussion
What the sources say
Strength:boosted· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“we were not able to assess the neurocognition in all patients but only in a subsample”
§ Persistent psychopathology and neurocognitive impairment in COVID-19 survivors: Effect of inflammatory biomarkers at three-month follow-up > Discussion
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“SII, considering together neutrophil, platelet, and lymphocyte, is an objective marker of the balance between host systemic inflammation and immune response (Huang et al., 2019).”
§ Persistent psychopathology and neurocognitive impairment in COVID-19 survivors: Effect of inflammatory biomarkers at three-month follow-up > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Huang et al., 2019 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Recruitment was in a single center, thus raising the possibility of population stratification”
§ Persistent psychopathology and neurocognitive impairment in COVID-19 survivors: Effect of inflammatory biomarkers at three-month follow-up > Discussion
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Several studies have proven that these inflammatory ratios can be used as inflammatory biomarkers in depression (Mazza et al., 2018, Wang et al., 2021, Zhou et al., 2020b).”
§ Persistent psychopathology and neurocognitive impairment in COVID-19 survivors: Effect of inflammatory biomarkers at three-month follow-up > Discussion
What the sources say
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Finally, lymphocytes are primarily involved in adaptive immunity, with a regulatory or protective function (Alberts, 2008).”
§ Persistent psychopathology and neurocognitive impairment in COVID-19 survivors: Effect of inflammatory biomarkers at three-month follow-up > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Alberts, 2008
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Inflammation is known to be associated to depression inducing brain-blood-barrier disruption, microglia activation, neurotransmission alteration, indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase 1 (IDO) activation, and oxidative stress (Benedetti et al., 2020a, Miller and Raison, 2016).”
§ Persistent psychopathology and neurocognitive impairment in COVID-19 survivors: Effect of inflammatory biomarkers at three-month follow-up > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Benedetti et al., 2020a
- Not checked yetcites Miller and Raison, 2016 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Platelet activation is mediated by serotonin, dopamine, glutamate, cytokines and P-selectin, all of them plays an important role in psychiatric disorders (Dietrich-Muszalska and Wachowicz, 2017).”
§ Persistent psychopathology and neurocognitive impairment in COVID-19 survivors: Effect of inflammatory biomarkers at three-month follow-up > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Dietrich-Muszalska and Wachowicz, 2017 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“an effect proportional to illness duration (Melloni et al., 2019)”
§ Persistent psychopathology and neurocognitive impairment in COVID-19 survivors: Effect of inflammatory biomarkers at three-month follow-up > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Melloni et al., 2019 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the public health implications of such effects will be significant and demanding for the psychiatric services”
§ Persistent psychopathology and neurocognitive impairment in COVID-19 survivors: Effect of inflammatory biomarkers at three-month follow-up > Discussion
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Rests on an assumption: COVID-19 infection has a global burden.
In the paper
“NLR, MLR and SII are low-cost, suitable for clinical routine analysis, and reproducible markers of the systemic inflammatory response, which can be easily derived from blood cell essay and determined under simple laboratory conditions (Balta et al., 2013).”
§ Persistent psychopathology and neurocognitive impairment in COVID-19 survivors: Effect of inflammatory biomarkers at three-month follow-up > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Balta et al., 2013 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper relies on this without support.
The delayed or long-term incidence of neuropsychiatric complications in COVID-19 survivors is unknown.
“Beyond acute or sub-acute sequelae, the delayed or long-term incidence of neuropsychiatric complications in COVID-19 survivors are still unknown.”
The paper relies on this without support.
This was the first prospective study to investigate psychiatric and neurocognitive sequelae at medium-term follow-up in COVID-19 survivors.
“This is the first study to prospectively investigate the psychiatric and neurocognitive sequelae at a medium-term follow-up in COVID-19 survivors.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Platelets act as a nonspecific early inflammatory marker, mediating endothelial permeability and drawing neutrophils and macrophages and their effector functions.
“Platelets are an aspecific first line inflammatory marker that mediate endothelial permeability and recruitment of neutrophils and macrophages and their effector functions.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Depression is associated with a markedly increased risk of all-cause and cause-specific mortality.
“depression associates with a markedly increased risk of all-cause and cause-specific mortality”
The paper relies on this without support.
COVID-19 infection has a global burden.
“given the global burden of COVID-19 infection”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“This confirms results from Mazza et al. (2021) where PTSD reported using PCL-5 decreased with longer follow-up in COVID-19 patients.”
From Long-term effects of COVID-19 on mental health: a systematic review (2022) · cites this paper as Mazza et al., 2021
In the citing paper
“It is thus not surprising that the neurological sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 infection are proving to be both common and debilitating (Nasserie et al., 2021; Mazza et al., 2021; Qureshi et al., 2022; Becker et al., 2021; Tabacof et al., 2022).”
From Mild respiratory COVID can cause multi-lineage neural cell and myelin dysregulation (2022) · cites this paper as Mazza et al., 2021
Statistics recomputed
Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.
- Consistentz = 2.98reported p = .0026 · recomputed p = .003
“Z = 2.980, p = .0026”
The paper states an exact rank test
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
BDI-13 clinical cutoff changes between methods and results
MinorThe methods define the BDI-13 cutoff as at least 9, but Table 1 counts patients using a cutoff of at least 8.
“BDI-13 ≥ 8 Yes (%)”
“BDI-13 ≥ 9”
Cognitive-performance categories omit 21 assessed patients
MinorThe listed mutually exclusive categories total 109 patients, although the paper says cognitive functions were assessed in 130 patients. The account does not identify a category for the remaining 21.
Reported 130 · recomputed 109
“Only 25 patients (19%) showed equivalent scores within the normal range in all domains, whereas 21 (16%) were poor performers in at least one function, 22 (17%) in two, 18 (14%) in three, 14 (11%) in four, 7 (5%) in five, and 2 (1.5%) showed no good performance at all.”
Share with normal cognition changes from 19% to 22%
MinorThe results say 19% performed normally in every domain, while the discussion describes the same outcome as 22% of the sample.
“Only 25 patients (19%) showed equivalent scores within the normal range in all domains”
“only 22% of the sample showing a good performance in all the investigated domains.”
Citations
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Flagged first, then by citations
3 of the 78 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Fatigue and cognitive impairment in Post-COVID-19 Syndrome: a systematic review and meta-analysis
Ceban, F., Ling, S., Lui, L. M. W., Lee, Y., Gill, H., Teopiz, K. M., Rodrigues, N. B., Subramaniapillai, M., Di Vincenzo, J. D., Cao, B., et al. (2022) · Brain, Behavior, and Immunity · doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2021.12.020 · Cited by 1,554
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Characterising long COVID: a living systematic review
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Mild respiratory COVID can cause multi-lineage neural cell and myelin dysregulation
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“It is thus not surprising that the neurological sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 infection are proving to be both common and debilitating (Nasserie et al., 2021; Mazza et al., 2021; Qureshi et al., 2022; Becker et al., 2021; Tabacof et al., 2022).”
BackgroundPsychiatric and neuropsychiatric sequelae of COVID-19 – A systematic review
Schou, T. M., Joca, S. R. L., Wegener, G., & Bay-Richter, C. (2021) · Brain Behavior and Immunity · doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2021.07.018 · Cited by 424
“Sleep disturbances following COVID-19 was reported in 24 studies (Al-Aly et al., 2021; Boari et al., 2021; D’Cruz et al., 2021; De Lorenzo et al., 2020; Frontera et al., 2021; Gautam et al., 2021; Gennaro et al., 2021; Graham et al., 2021; Huang et al., 2021a; Huang et al., 2021b; Iqbal et al., 2021; Lorenzo et al., 2…”
InfluentialThe neurobiology of long COVID
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Long-term effects of COVID-19 on mental health: a systematic review
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“The two BDI studies, Mazza et al. (2021) and Ortelli et al. (2021) reported minimal depression, with average scores of 1.93 (95% CI = 1.34, 2.52) and 3.80 (95% CI = 2.16, 5.44) respectively.”
BackgroundResultInfluential2020 WHO guidelines on physical activity and sedentary behavior
Okely, A. D., Васильевна, К. А., Ng, J. Y. Y., & Abdeta, C. (2021) · Sports Medicine and Health Science · doi:10.1016/j.smhs.2021.05.001 · Cited by 331
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“In the other study, the prevalence of post-traumatic stress disorder was 30% at 1 – 3 months after a severe acute episode [55].”
Post-COVID-19 Depressive Symptoms: Epidemiology, Pathophysiology, and Pharmacological Treatment
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“Interestingly, two studies found that reducing inflammatory markers over time predicted improvement of depressive symptoms at follow-up [10, 98].”
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Tavares-Júnior, J. W. L., de Souza, A. C. C., Borges, J. W. P., Oliveira, D. N., Neto, J. I. S., Sobreira-Neto, M. A., & Braga‐Neto, P. (2022) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2022.04.006 · Cited by 179
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Cognitive, EEG, and MRI features of COVID-19 survivors: a 10-month study
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Self-citationLipopolysaccharide-induced depression-like model in mice: meta-analysis and systematic evaluation
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Psychiatric and neurological complications of long COVID
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Neuropsychological deficits in patients with cognitive complaints after COVID‐19
García‐Sánchez, C., Calabria, M., Grunden, N., Pons, C., Arroyo, J. A., Gómez‐Ansón, B., Lleó, A., Alcolea, D. A., Belvís, R., Morollón, N., et al. (2022) · Brain and Behavior · doi:10.1002/brb3.2508 · Cited by 151
“…long-term effects, Ferrucci et al. (2021) reported evidence of long-term memory deficits in COVID-19 patients 5 months after hospitalization and Mazza et al. (2021) found that half of their COVID19 patient sample demonstrated executive function deficits and 30% of them showed impairments in…”
BackgroundInterleukin-6 as potential mediator of long-term neuropsychiatric symptoms of COVID-19
Kappelmann, N., Dantzer, R., & Khandaker, G. M. (2021) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2021.105295 · Cited by 139
Systematic Review of the Prevalence of Long COVID
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Poletti, S., Palladini, M., Mazza, M. G., LORENZO, R. D., Bollettini, I., Sara, B., Bravi, B., Ceciclio, B., Stefania, C., Valentina, C., et al. (2021) · European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience · doi:10.1007/s00406-021-01346-9 · Cited by 152
Self-citationBenedetti, F., Palladini, M., Paolini, M., Melloni, E. M. T., Vai, B., LORENZO, R. D., Furlan, R., Rovere, P. Q., Falini, A., & Mazza, M. G. (2021) · Brain Behavior & Immunity - Health · doi:10.1016/j.bbih.2021.100387 · Cited by 132
“This is an open access ar post-traumatic distress that persist for months after virus clearance and discharge from the hospital, and leads to the need for psychiatric intervention and psychotropic medication (Taquet et al., 2020, 2021; Mazza et al., 2021).”
InfluentialSelf-citationCOVID-19 and cognitive impairment: neuroinvasive and blood‒brain barrier dysfunction
Chen, Y., Yang, W., Chen, F., & Cui, L. (2022) · Journal of Neuroinflammation · doi:10.1186/s12974-022-02579-8 · Cited by 134
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Obsessive–Compulsive Disorder During the COVID-19 Pandemic: a Systematic Review
Guzick, A. G., Candelari, A. E., Wiese, A. D., Schneider, S. C., Goodman, W. K., & Storch, E. A. (2021) · Current Psychiatry Reports · doi:10.1007/s11920-021-01284-2 · Cited by 113
Long COVID and neuropsychiatric manifestations (Review)
Efstathiou, V., Stefanou, M., Demetriou, M., Siafakas, N., Makris, M. P., Tsivgoulis, G. K., Zoumpourlis, V., Kympouropoulos, S. P., Tsoporis, J. N., Spandidos, D. A., et al. (2022) · Experimental and Therapeutic Medicine · doi:10.3892/etm.2022.11290 · Cited by 118
“Of note, Mazza et al (39), in 2020, assessed 402 COVID‑19 survivors at 1 month following treatment at the hospital emer‑ gency department, using self‑rated psychometric instruments, and found that overall, 56% scored in the pathological range in at least one clinical dimension [i.e., including depression, anxiety, pos…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialPersistent white matter changes in recovered COVID-19 patients at the 1-year follow-up
Huang, S., Zhou, Z., Yang, D., Zhao, W., Zeng, M., Xie, X., Du, Y., Jiang, Y., Zhou, X., Yang, W., et al. (2021) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/awab435 · Cited by 101
“lymphocytes).(14) Baseline clinical characteristics and inflammatory markers were used for further analysis in this study.”
MethodCellular and molecular biomarkers of long COVID: a scoping review
Espín, E., Yang, C., Shannon, C. P., Assadian, S., He, D. X., & Tebbutt, S. J. (2023) · EBioMedicine · doi:10.1016/j.ebiom.2023.104552 · Cited by 115
Epidemiology, clinical presentation, pathophysiology, and management of long COVID: an update
Su, S., Zhao, Y., Zeng, N., Liu, X., Zheng, Y., Sun, J., Zhong, Y., Wu, S., Ni, S., Gong, Y.-M., et al. (2023) · Molecular Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41380-023-02171-3 · Cited by 107
“Another study showed that a baseline systemic immune-in fl ammation index (SII) based on peripheral lymphocyte, neutrophil and platelet counts predicted depressive symptoms and cognitive impairment at three-month follow-up [136].”
Biomarkers of post-covid depression
Lorkiewicz, P., & Waszkiewicz, N. (2021) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm10184142 · Cited by 102
One-year mental health outcomes in a cohort of COVID-19 survivors
Mazza, M. G., Palladini, M., LORENZO, R. D., Bravi, B., Poletti, S., Furlan, R., Ciceri, F., Vai, B., Bollettini, I., Melloni, E. M. T., et al. (2021) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2021.11.031 · Cited by 102
“Psychiatric long-term complaints affected the quality of life, associated with cognitive impairments, and fatigue syndromes (Manning et al., 2021; Mazza et al., 2021).”
Self-citationCognitive impairment in people with previous COVID-19 infection: A scoping review
Bertuccelli, M., Ciringione, L., Rubega, M., Bisiacchi, P. S., Masiero, S., & Felice, A. D. (2022) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2022.06.002 · Cited by 110
“The single study evaluating the presence of obsessivecompulsive disorders due to COVID-19 failed to find significant results (OCI score: 14.04 ± 11.71 for Mazza et al., 2021).”
InfluentialAjčević, M., Iscra, K., Furlanis, G., Michelutti, M., Miladinović, A., Stella, A. B., Ukmar, M., Cova, M. A., Accardo, A., & Manganotti, P. (2023) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-32275-3 · Cited by 106
Inflammation at the crossroads of COVID-19, cognitive deficits and depression
Silva, N. M. L. E., Barros‐Aragão, F. G. Q., Felice, F. G. D., & Ferreira, S. T. (2022) · Neuropharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2022.109023 · Cited by 96
Oh, H. Y., Marinovich, C., Rajkumar, R. P., Besecker, M., Zhou, S., Jacob, L., Koyanagi, A., & Smith, L. (2021) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2021.05.121 · Cited by 91
“In support of this possibility, a recent study of COVID-19 survivors (N = 226) found that 35.8% had persistent symptoms of psychological distress, particularly depression, and these symptoms were positively correlated with a baseline measure of systemic inflammation (Mazza et al., 2021).”
InfluentialFernández-Castañeda, A., Lu, P., Geraghty, A. C., Song, E., Lee, M.-H., Wood, J., Yalçın, B., Taylor, K. R., Dutton, S., Acosta-Alvarez, L., et al. (2022) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2022.01.07.475453 · Cited by 104
“(Mazza et al., 2021).”
Cognitive Impairment in Non-critical, Mild-to-Moderate COVID-19 Survivors
Henneghan, A. M., Lewis, K., Gill, E. R., & Kesler, S. R. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.770459 · Cited by 87
Larger gray matter volumes in neuropsychiatric long-COVID syndrome
Besteher, B., Machnik, M., Troll, M., Toepffer, A., Zerekidze, A., Rocktäschel, T., Heller, C., Kikinis, Z., Brodoehl, S., Finke, K., et al. (2022) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2022.114836 · Cited by 81
“…to controls at the day of scanning all participants were rated for symptoms of depression with Montgomery-Asberg Depression Rating Scale (MADRS, (Montgomery et al., 1985) and completed the State-Trait-Anxiety Inventory (STAI, (Spielberger and Vagg, 1984) as a self-rating assessment for symptoms…”
Neurocognitive Impairment in Long COVID: A Systematic Review
Panagea, E., Messinis, L., Petri, M. C., Liampas, I., Anyfantis, E., Nasios, G., Patrikelis, P., & Kosmidis, M. H. (2024) · Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology · doi:10.1093/arclin/acae042 · Cited by 94
Miskowiak, K. W., Pedersen, J. K., Gunnarsson, D. V., Roikjer, T. K., Podlekareva, D. N., Hansen, H., Dall, C. H., & Johnsen, S. (2022) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2022.12.122 · Cited by 79
“2022), other studies found high frequencies of impairment across executive function, attention and memory (Bungenberg et al. 2022; CostasCarrera et al. 2022; Crivelli et al. 2022; Jaywant et al. 2021; Krishnan et al. 2022; Lopez-Leon et al. 2021; Mazza et al. 2021; Miskowiak et al. 2021; Miskowiak et al. 2022).”
Hellgren, L., Thornberg, U. B., Samuelsson, K., Levi, R., Divanoglou, A., & Blystad, I. (2021) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2021-055164 · Cited by 81
Rapid response to selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors in post-COVID depression
Mazza, M. G., Zanardi, R., Palladini, M., Rovere-Querini, P., & Benedetti, F. (2022) · European Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2021.09.009 · Cited by 75
Self-citationBridging Knowledge Gaps in the Diagnosis and Management of Neuropsychiatric Sequelae of COVID-19
Frontera, J. A., & Simon, N. M. (2022) · JAMA Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2022.1616 · Cited by 74
Prevalence, trajectory over time, and risk factor of post-COVID-19 fatigue
Mazza, M. G., Palladini, M., Villa, G., LORENZO, R. D., Rovere, P. Q., & Benedetti, F. (2022) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2022.08.008 · Cited by 70
“…apart from fatigue, depressive symptoms have also been associated with neurocognitive functioning (Gouraud et al., 2021; Mattioli et al., 2021; Mazza et al., 2021b; Poletti et al., 2021) and quality of life (Babicki et al., 2021; Poletti et al., 2021) in COVID-19 survivors, the reported…”
Self-citationLombardo, M. D. M., Foppiani, A., Peretti, G. M., Mangiavini, L., Battezzati, A., Bertoli, S., Boneschi, F. M., & Zuccotti, G. (2021) · Open Forum Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1093/ofid/ofab384 · Cited by 68
Kadier, K., Dilixiati, D., Ainiwaer, A., Liu, X., Lu, J.-D., Liu, P., Ainiwan, M., Yesitayi, G., Ma, X., & Ma, Y.-T. (2023) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-023-05286-7 · Cited by 70
“Investigations into the psychopathological status of survivors of COVID-19 have revealed that long-standing systemic inflammatory status can be reflected by inflammatory parameters such as SII and is closely related to anxiety and somatization and sleep disorders [16, 17].”
BackgroundMiskowiak, K. W., Fugledalen, L., Jespersen, A. E., Sattler, S. M., Podlekareva, D. N., Rungby, J., Porsberg, C., & Johnsen, S. (2022) · European Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2022.04.004 · Cited by 62
“While the functional implication of cognitive impairments after COVID-19 are evident, the neurobiological origins of these long-term impairments remain unclear and are likely multifactorial (Baldini et al., 2021; Mazza et al., 2021; Moonis et al., 2020; Scardua Silva et al., 2021).”
BackgroundBrain fog as a Long-term Sequela of COVID-19
Nouraeinejad, A. (2022) · SN Comprehensive Clinical Medicine · doi:10.1007/s42399-022-01352-5 · Cited by 72
“from 3 COVID-19-designated hospitals] [26], a cohort study [investigated the frequency, pattern and severity of cognitive impairments 3–4 months after COVID-19 hospital discharge] [20], a cohort study [compared critically ill and noncritically ill patients categorized according to the presence of acute respiratory dis…”
Paolini, M., Palladini, M., Mazza, M. G., Colombo, F., Vai, B., Rovere, P. Q., Falini, A., Poletti, S., & Benedetti, F. (2022) · European Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2022.12.002 · Cited by 63
“A key concern is the long-lasting cognitive consequences of the infection (10-12), representing a critical and debilitating feature of the so-called Post-acute COVID-19 syndrome (PACS) (2, 13).”
BackgroundSelf-citationObsessive-compulsive symptoms and the Covid-19 pandemic: A rapid scoping review
Grant, J. E., Drummond, L. M., Nicholson, T. R., Fagan, H. A., Baldwin, D. S., Fineberg, N. A., & Chamberlain, S. R. (2021) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.10.039 · Cited by 61
“In a very recent study, diagnostic information and psychiatric symptom measures (including for OCD) were collected from 226 Covid-19 pneumonia survivors (Mazza et al., 2021).”
MethodCharacterising long term Covid-19: a living systematic review
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Costas‐Carrera, A., Sánchez‐Rodríguez, M. M., Cañizares, S., Ojeda, A., Martín‐Villalba, I., Primé‐Tous, M., Rodríguez-Rey, A., Segú, X., Valdesoiro‐Pulido, F., Borràs, R., et al. (2022) · Brain Behavior & Immunity - Health · doi:10.1016/j.bbih.2022.100425 · Cited by 62
Singewald, N., Sartori, S. B., Reif, A., & Holmes, A. (2023) · Neuropharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2023.109418 · Cited by 64
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“Reviewing what has been examined thus far, psychopathological sequelae can occur during the acute or subacute infection period in patients with COVID-19 and have been reported to be significantly related to inflammatory biomarkers collected during hospitalization (Mazza et al., 2020, 2021).”
BackgroundDynamic white matter changes in recovered COVID-19 patients: a two-year follow-up study
Huang, S., Zhou, X., Zhao, W., Du, Y., Yang, D., Huang, Y., Chen, Y., Zhang, H., Yang, G., Liu, J., et al. (2023) · Theranostics · doi:10.7150/thno.79902 · Cited by 55
Cognitive impairment after long COVID-19: current evidence and perspectives
Li, Z., Zhang, Z., Zhang, Z., Wang, Z., & Li, H. (2023) · Frontiers in Neurology · doi:10.3389/fneur.2023.1239182 · Cited by 70
Risk factors for psychiatric symptoms in patients with long COVID: A systematic review
Zakia, H., Pradana, K., & Iskandar, S. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0284075 · Cited by 63
The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Dementia Risk: Potential Pathways to Cognitive Decline
Pyne, J. D., & Brickman, A. M. (2021) · Neurodegenerative Diseases · doi:10.1159/000518581 · Cited by 50
He, D., Yuan, M., Dang, W., Bai, L., Yang, R., Wang, J., Ma, Y., Liu, B., Liu, S., Zhang, S., et al. (2022) · Asian Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.ajp.2022.103409 · Cited by 50
“A pervious study showed the systemic inflammation was a predict factor to the neurocognitive performance (Mazza et al., 2021).”
Depressive and Neurocognitive Disorders in the Context of the Inflammatory Background of COVID-19
Dąbrowska, E., Galińska-Skok, B., & Waszkiewicz, N. (2021) · Life · doi:10.3390/life11101056 · Cited by 47
“Based on the current medical knowledge, it is suggested that a history of a SARS-CoV-2 infection may have a significant impact on the reduction in neurocognitive functions [19,125,174,194].”
BackgroundInfluentialPoletti, S., Zanardi, R., Mandelli, A., Aggio, V., Finardi, A., Lorenzi, C., Borsellino, G., Carminati, M., Manfredi, E., Tomasi, E., et al. (2024) · Brain Behavior and Immunity · doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2024.02.019 · Cited by 54
Self-citationKulaga, S. S., & Miller, C. W. T. (2021) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.05.008 · Cited by 51
Cognitive Impairment after Post-Acute COVID-19 Infection: A Systematic Review of the Literature
Perrottelli, A., Sansone, N., Giordano, G. M., Caporusso, E., Giuliani, L., Melillo, A., Pezzella, P., Bucci, P., Mucci, A., & Galderisi, S. (2022) · Journal of Personalized Medicine · doi:10.3390/jpm12122070 · Cited by 49
“Seven of the studies included more than 50% of hospitalized patients [9,63,80,84,88,92,98].”
Vortioxetine for the treatment of post-COVID-19 condition: a randomized controlled trial
McIntyre, R. S., Phan, L., Kwan, A. T. H., Mansur, R. B., Rosenblat, J. D., Guo, Z., Le, G. H., Lui, L. M. W., Teopiz, K. M., Ceban, F., et al. (2023) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/awad377 · Cited by 47
Borsini, A., Merrick, B., Edgeworth, J., Mandal, G., Srivastava, D. P., Vernon, A. C., Nebbia, G., Thuret, S., & Pariante, C. M. (2022) · Molecular Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41380-022-01741-1 · Cited by 44
Nowakowski, S., Kokonda, M., Sultana, R., Duong, B. B., Nagy, S. E., Zaidan, M., Baig, M. M., Grigg, B. V., Seashore, J., & Deer, R. (2022) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci12050586 · Cited by 41
“Initial data suggest that sleep disorders may improve with increased time since recovery, but whether sleep quality returns to baseline has yet to be seen [9,10].”
BackgroundDale, L. P., Cuffe, S. P., Kołacz, J., Leon, K. G., Biernacki, N. B., Bhullar, A., Nix, E. J., & Porges, S. W. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2022.830926 · Cited by 46
Leitlinie S1: Long COVID: Differenzialdiagnostik und Behandlungsstrategien
Rabady, S., Altenberger, J., Brose, M., Denk‐Linnert, D., Fertl, E., Götzinger, F., Pellı́n, M. D. L. C., Hofbaur, B., Hoffmann, K., Hoffmann-Dorninger, R., et al. (2021) · Wiener klinische Wochenschrift · doi:10.1007/s00508-021-01974-0 · Cited by 46
Cognitive Assessment in SARS-CoV-2 Patients: A Systematic Review
Biagianti, B., Di Liberto, A., Nicolò Edoardo, A., Lisi, I., Nobilia, L., de Ferrabonc, G. D., Zanier, E. R., Stocchetti, N., & Brambilla, P. (2022) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2022.909661 · Cited by 41
Moura, A., Oliveira, D., Torres, D., Tavares-Júnior, J. W., Nóbrega, P., Braga-Neto, P., & Sobreira-Neto, M. (2022) · BMC Neurology · doi:10.1186/s12883-022-02940-7 · Cited by 36
“The relationship between ES and depression is probably bidirectional, with poor sleep quality negatively affecting mood state and poor sleep quality and ES as a possible result of depression [12, 32].”
BackgroundPrevalence of depression in SARS-CoV-2 infected patients: An umbrella review of meta-analyses
Mazza, M. G., Palladini, M., Villa, G., Agnoletto, E., Harrington, Y. A., Vai, B., & Benedetti, F. (2022) · General Hospital Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2022.12.002 · Cited by 46
“Sparse longitudinal studies have directly investigated the trajectory of depression after SARS-CoV-2 infection, reporting inconsistent findings suggesting both persistent [8,9,43] and decreasing [44] depressive psychopathology over follow-ups.”
BackgroundSelf-citationNiu, Y., Lv, Z.-H., Sun, C., Wen, Y.-Y., Tao, T.-Y., Qian, D., Tao, F.-P., & Yu, J.-H. (2023) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2023.1112383 · Cited by 43
Zhou, S., Wei, T., Liu, X., Liu, Y., Song, W., Que, X., Xing, Y., Wang, Z., & Tang, Y. (2023) · BMC Medicine · doi:10.1186/s12916-023-02952-1 · Cited by 43
Hassan, N. M., Salim, H. S., Amaran, S., Yunus, N. I., Yusof, N. A., Daud, N., & Fry, D. A. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0282538 · Cited by 42
Cognitive domains affected post‐COVID ‐19; a systematic review and meta‐analysis
Fanshawe, J. B., Sargent, B., Badenoch, J., Saini, A., Watson, C. J., Pokrovskaya, A., Aniwattanapong, D., Conti, I., Nye, C., Burchill, E., et al. (2024) · European Journal of Neurology · doi:10.1111/ene.16181 · Cited by 56
Lifestyle Adjustments in Long-COVID Management: Potential Benefits of Plant-Based Diets
Storz, M. A. (2021) · Current Nutrition Reports · doi:10.1007/s13668-021-00369-x · Cited by 45
Wang, Q., Yan, K., Li, K.-D., Gao, L., Wang, X., Liu, H., Zhang, Z., Li, K., & Cui, Y. (2021) · Phytomedicine · doi:10.1016/j.phymed.2021.153735 · Cited by 37
Cui, S., Li, J., Liu, Y., Yao, G., Wu, Y., Liu, Z., Sun, L., Sun, L., & Liu, H. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1159889 · Cited by 39
Mental health outcomes of adults hospitalized for COVID-19: A systematic review
Veazie, S., Lafavor, B., Vela, K., Young, S., Sayer, N. A., Carlson, K. F., & O'Neil, M. E. (2022) · Journal of Affective Disorders Reports · doi:10.1016/j.jadr.2022.100312 · Cited by 35
Who Is at Risk of Poor Mental Health Following Coronavirus Disease-19 Outpatient Management?
Hüfner, K., Tymoszuk, P., Ausserhofer, D., Sahanic, S., Pizzini, A., Rass, V., Gálffy, M., Boehm, A., Kurz, K., Sonnweber, T., et al. (2022) · Frontiers in Medicine · doi:10.3389/fmed.2022.792881 · Cited by 33
Damiano, R. F., Rocca, C. C. D. A., Serafim, A. D. P., Loftis, J. M., Talib, L. L., Pan, P. M., Cunha‐Neto, E., Kalil, J. E., de Castro, G. S., Seelaender, M. C. L., et al. (2023) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2023.1174020 · Cited by 36
The Molecular Mechanisms of Cognitive Dysfunction in Long COVID: A Narrative Review
Popa, E., Popa, A. E., Poroch, M., Poroch, V., Ungureanu, M. I., Slănină, A. M., Bacușcă, A. I., & Coman, A. E. (2025) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms26115102 · Cited by 45
“Astrocytic and axonal injury is reflected by increased levels of GFAP [33,48,58,74,82] and NFL [33,39,47,48], while FKBP5 and LGALS3 are linked to tau phosphorylation and neurotoxicity [48,51].”
Luca, R. D., Bonanno, M., & Calabrò, R. S. (2022) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm11216554 · Cited by 38
Kirchberger, I., Peilstöcker, D., Warm, T. D., Linseisen, J., Hyhlik-Dürr, A., Meisinger, C., & Goßlau, Y. (2023) · Viruses · doi:10.3390/v15010256 · Cited by 31
Central nervous system outcomes of COVID-19
Doyle, M. F. (2021) · Translational research · doi:10.1016/j.trsl.2021.09.002 · Cited by 33
Poletti, S., Paolini, M., Mazza, M. G., Palladini, M., Furlan, R., Rovere, P. Q., & Benedetti, F. (2022) · European Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2022.06.008 · Cited by 34
Self-citationSu, W., Ju, J., Gu, M., Wang, X., Liu, S., Yu, J., & Mu, D.-L. (2023) · Journal of Neuroinflammation · doi:10.1186/s12974-023-02786-x · Cited by 33
Neuroimmune pathophysiology of long COVID
Moen, J. K., Baker, C. A., & Iwasaki, A. (2025) · Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences · doi:10.1111/pcn.13855 · Cited by 38
“238 – 241 Notably, measurements of anxiety and depression can be confounded by the presence of comorbid conditions like dysautonomia in Long COVID, which have overlapping symptoms that can arti fi cially in fl ate scores in common self-reported symptom scales and lead to misdiagnosis.”
Neurochemical biomarkers to study CNS effects of COVID‐19: A narrative review and synthesis
Edén, A., Simrén, J., Price, R. W., Zetterberg, H., & Gisslén, M. (2021) · Journal of Neurochemistry · doi:10.1111/jnc.15459 · Cited by 29
“Psychiatric manifestations and long- term post- infectious manifestations including anxiety and fatigue are also increasingly recognized as possible infectious complications (Carfi et al., 2020; Mazza et al., 2021; Halpin et al., 2020; Varatharaj et al., 2020).”
BackgroundHuarcaya-Victoria, J., Barreto, J., Aire, L., Podestà, Á., Caqui, M., Guija-Igreda, R., Castillo, C., & Alarcon-Ruiz, C. A. (2021) · International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction · doi:10.1007/s11469-021-00659-z · Cited by 34
Bower, J., Radin, A., & Kuhlman, K. (2022) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2022.104104 · Cited by 30
Brown, L. A., Ballentine, E., Zhu, Y., McGinley, E. L., Pezzin, L. E., & Abramoff, B. A. (2022) · Brain Behavior & Immunity - Health · doi:10.1016/j.bbih.2022.100460 · Cited by 33
Vascular Dysfunctions Contribute to the Long-Term Cognitive Deficits Following COVID-19
Shabani, Z., Liu, J., & Su, H. (2023) · Biology · doi:10.3390/biology12081106 · Cited by 41
Complex association between post-COVID-19 condition and anxiety and depression symptoms
Tebeka, S., Carcaillon‐Bentata, L., Decio, V., Alleaume, C., Beltzer, N., Gallay, A., Lemogne, C., Pignon, B., Makovski, T. T., & Coste, J. (2023) · European Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/j.eurpsy.2023.2473 · Cited by 30
“Indeed, female sex and chronic conditions are both well-established risk factors for PCC [40 – 45].”
BackgroundPalladini, M., Bravi, B., Colombo, F., Caselani, E., Pasquasio, C. D., D'Orsi, G., Rovere, P. Q., Poletti, S., Benedetti, F., & Mazza, M. G. (2022) · Neuropsychological Rehabilitation · doi:10.1080/09602011.2022.2075016 · Cited by 32
“In this context, our precedent investigation provides early evidence about the detrimental impact of depressive symptoms on middle-term cognitive performances in a longitudinal cohort of covid-19 survivors (Mazza et al., 2021).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialSelf-citationGonzalo Labarca, T., Henríquez‐Beltrán, M., Lamperti, L., Nova‐Lamperti, E., Sanhueza, S. A., Cabrera, C., Quiroga, R. A., Antilef, B., Ormazábal, V., Zuñiga, F. A., et al. (2022) · Frontiers in Medicine · doi:10.3389/fmed.2022.884218 · Cited by 29
The viral hypothesis in Alzheimer’s disease: SARS-CoV-2 on the cusp
Liu, N., Jiang, X., & Li, H. (2023) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2023.1129640 · Cited by 27
“An observational clinical study reported long-term cognitive abnormalities in nearly 50% of COVID-19 survivors (Mazza et al., 2021).”
BackgroundNavigating the Post-COVID-19 Immunological Era: Understanding Long COVID-19 and Immune Response
Mohan, A., Iyer, V. A., Kumar, D., Batra, L., & Dahiya, P. (2023) · Life · doi:10.3390/life13112121 · Cited by 31
Metadata
- Authors
- Mazza, M. G., Palladini, M., De Lorenzo, R., Magnaghi, C., Poletti, S., Furlan, R., Ciceri, F., Rovere-Querini, P., & Benedetti, F.
- Affiliations
- Vita-Salute San Raffaele University (IT)
- IRCCS Ospedale San Raffaele (IT)
- Corresponding author
- Mazza, Mario Gennaro
- ORCID
- Venue
- Brain, Behavior, and Immunity
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2021-05
- Volume
- 94
- Pages
- 138-147
- ISSN
- 0889-1591 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC7903920
- OpenAlex
- W3129342553
- Semantic Scholar
- 2c34e539a6d09867be7208e71f8a551c08e53ca0
- Cited by
- 513
- References
- 78
- Citations by year
- 2026: 23 · 2025: 66 · 2024: 109 · 2023: 148 · 2022: 115 · 2021: 50
- FWCI
- 50.55
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Licence
- Locations
- Brain Behavior and Immunity (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Archivio Istituzionale della Ricerca - Università Vita-Salute San Raffaele (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Clinical Neurology › Long-Term Effects of COVID-19
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › COVID-19 and Mental Health
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Infectious Diseases › COVID-19 Clinical Research Studies
- Keywords
- COVID-19 pandemic, post-COVID-19 mental health, dysthymia, neurocognitive impairment, systemic inflammation, inflammatory markers, systemic immune-inflammation index, executive function, psychomotor coordination, verbal memory, verbal fluency, processing speed, long COVID
- MeSH terms
- COVID-19, SARS-CoV-2, Mental Disorders, Child, Preschool, Cognition Disorders, Follow-Up Studies, Humans, Male, Neuropsychological Tests, Prospective Studies, Biomarkers, Survivors
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-07, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-07 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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