How bad are the effects of bad leaders? A meta-analysis of destructive leadership and its outcomes

Schyns, Birgit; Schilling, Jan

doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2012.09.001

Cited by 1,245Job Satisfaction and Organizational BehaviorWorkplace Violence and BullyingEmployee Performance and Leadership

How bad are the effects of bad leaders? A meta-analysis of destructive leadership and its outcomes

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Schyns, Birgit, Schilling, Jan·2013·The Leadership Quarterly

DOI 10.1016/j.leaqua.2012.09.001

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Abusive supervision is theorised to reduce followers' trust in leaders.
“The reciprocation of positive exchanges with a leader builds trust. In contrast, if a leader engages in abusive behaviour, it will inevitably reduce followers' trust in leaders. Thus, in accordance with SET, trust decreases over time as a result of unfavourable exchanges with a leader. Abusive supervision represents unpleasant behaviours that can be predicted to contribute to feelings of distrust”
From A meta-analysis of the role of trust in the leadership- performance relationship (2021) · cites this paper as Schyns & Schilling (2013)
Researchers have argued that follower perceptions are critical to include in measures of abusive supervision because leader behavior can only have an effect on followers if it is also perceived by them.
“researchers have argued that follower perceptions are critical to include in measures of abusive supervision because leader behavior can only have an effect on followers if it is also perceived by them (Schyns and Schilling, 2013).”
From Narcissistic Leaders and Their Victims: Followers Low on Self-Esteem and Low on Core Self-Evaluations Suffer Most (2018) · cites this paper as Schyns and Schilling, 2013
The lack of a clear leadership approach or a wrong management style can de-motivate employees, kill productivity, and lead to disengagement and turnover.
“On the other hand, the lack of a clear leadership approach or a wrong management style can de-motivate employees, kill productivity, and lead to disengagement and turnover (Catteeuw et al., 2007;Schyns & Schilling, 2013).”
From Servant Leadership and Employee Engagement: A Qualitative Study (2022) · cites this paper as Schyns & Schilling, 2013
Destructive leadership is defined as voluntary, repeated, and hostile behaviors targeted at followers to harm them and/or the organization.
“Destructive leadership is defined as voluntary, repeated, and hostile behaviors targeted at followers to harm them and/or the organization (Krasikova et al., 2013; Schyns & Schilling, 2013).”
From The evolution of leadership: Past insights, present trends, and future directions (2025) · cites this paper as Schyns & Schilling, 2013

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Dupré, K. E., Inness, M., Connelly, C. E., Barling, J. I., & Hoption, C. (2006) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.91.5.987 · Cited by 118 · see citing works
The Relationship of Abusive and Supportive Workplace Supervision to Employee Burnout and Upward Influence Tactics
Yagil, D. (2006) · Journal of Emotional Abuse · doi:10.1300/j135v06n01_03 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
Chinese paternalistic leadership and non-Chinese subordinates' psychological health
Chen, H., & Kao, H. S. R. (2009) · The International Journal of Human Resource Management · doi:10.1080/09585190903363839 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
Dominating Interpersonal Behavior and Perceived Victimization in Groups: Evidence for a Curvilinear Relationship
Aquino, K. F., & Byron, K. L. (2002) · Journal of Management · doi:10.1177/014920630202800105 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
Losing sleep: Examining the cascading effects of supervisors' experience of injustice on subordinates' psychological health
Rafferty, A., Restubog, S., & Jimmieson, N. (2010) · Work & Stress · doi:10.1080/02678371003715135 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
Target personality and workplace victimization: A prospective analysis
Bowling, N. A., Beehr, T. A., Bennett, M. M., & Watson, C. P. (2010) · Work & Stress · doi:10.1080/02678373.2010.489635 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
Charismatic Leadership: The Elusive Factor in Organizational Effectiveness.
Binning, J. F., Conger, J. A., & KANUNGO, R. N. (1990) · Administrative Science Quarterly · doi:10.2307/2393521 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
Development and initial validation of a measure of supportive and unsupportive managerial behaviors
Rooney, J., & Gottlieb, B. (2007) · Journal of Vocational Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2007.03.006 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
A Meta-Analytic Review of the Productivity and Satisfaction of Democratic and Autocratic Leadership
Gastil, J. (1994) · Small Group Research · doi:10.1177/1046496494253003 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
Effects of perceived power of supervisor on subordinate work attitudes
Elangovan, A. R., & Xie, J. L. (2000) · Leadership & Organization Development Journal · doi:10.1108/01437730010343095 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
The Impact of Destructive Leadership on Senior Military Officers and Civilian Employees
Reed, G. E., & Bullis, R. C. (2009) · Armed Forces & Society · doi:10.1177/0095327x09334994 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
Time to Try a Little Tenderness? The Detrimental Effects of Accountability When Coupled With Abusive Supervision
Breaux, D. M., Perrewé, P. L., Hall, A. T., Frink, D. D., & Hochwarter, W. A. (2008) · Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies · doi:10.1177/1548051808321787 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Birds of a Feather...?
Duffy, M. K., & Ferrier, W. J. (2003) · Group & Organization Management · doi:10.1177/1059601103028002003 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
How support‐related managerial behaviors influence employees
Rooney, J. A., Gottlieb, B. H., & Newby‐Clark, I. R. (2009) · Journal of Managerial Psychology · doi:10.1108/02683940910959744 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Transformational Leadership
Hocker, S. M., & Trofino, J. (2003) · Lippincott s Case Management · doi:10.1097/00129234-200309000-00006 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Retaliation against supervisory mistreatment
Kim, T., & Shapiro, D. L. (2008) · International Journal of Conflict Management · doi:10.1108/10444060810909293 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
The grounded theory approach to qualitative research.
Locke, K. (2002) · Cited by 54 · see citing works
How Employee Race Moderates the Relationship Between Non-Contingent Punishment and Organizational Citizenship Behaviors: A Test of the Negative Adaptation Hypothesis
Thau, S., Aquino, K. F., & Bommer, W. H. (2008) · Social Justice Research · doi:10.1007/s11211-008-0072-1 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
EMPLOYEES' ATTRIBUTION OF ABUSIVE SUPERVISORY BEHAVIORS
Yagil, D. (2005) · International journal of organizational analysis · doi:10.1108/eb029009 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Progressing by stepping back: An assessment of negative leader behavior
Tate, B. W., & Jacobs, R. R. (2010) · PsycEXTRA Dataset · doi:10.1037/e518392013-068 · Cited by 1 · see citing works

Flagged first, then by citations

Sorted by citations

Social Exchange Theory: A Critical Review with Theoretical Remedies
Cropanzano, R., Anthony, E. L., Daniels, S. R., & Hall, A. V. (2017) · Academy of Management Annals · doi:10.5465/annals.2015.0099 · Cited by 2,288 · see citing works
“To illustrate, consider the consequences when a destructive leader (Schyns & Schilling, 2013) engages in abusive supervision (Mackey et al., in press; Tepper, 2007) or interpersonal injustice (Bies, 2001; 2005; 2015).”
Background
The effect of loneliness on depression: A meta-analysis
Erzen, E., & Çikrikci, Ö. (2018) · International Journal of Social Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/0020764018776349 · Cited by 838 · see citing works
Abusive supervision: A meta-analysis and empirical review
Mackey, J. D., Frieder, R. E., Brees, J. R., & Martinko, M. J. (2017) · Journal of Management · doi:10.1177/0149206315573997 · Cited by 706 · see citing works
“The most closely related meta-analysis to ours is that of Schyns and Schilling. Their metaanalysis of destructive leadership was leader focused and assessed multiple forms of destructive leadership (e.g., abusive supervision, negative leadership, toxic leadership), whereas our meta-analysis of abusive supervision is s…”
Method
Leadership, followers' mental health and job performance in organizations: A comprehensive meta‐analysis from an occupational health perspective
Montaño, D., Reeske, A., Franke, F., & Hüffmeier, J. (2016) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/job.2124 · Cited by 649 · see citing works
Abusive Supervision
Tepper, B. J., Simon, L., & Park, H. M. (2017) · Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-041015-062539 · Cited by 640 · see citing works
Leadership and stress: A meta-analytic review
Harms, P. D., Credé, M., Tynan, M., Leon, M., & Jeung, W. (2017) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2016.10.006 · Cited by 558 · see citing works
“For example, a recent meta-analysis of destructive leadership (Schyns & Schilling, 2013) found a fairly robust relationship between abusive supervision and follower stress (r = 0.31) on the basis of 12 studies.”
BackgroundInfluential
“You wouldn’t like me when I’m sleepy”: Leaders’ sleep, daily abusive supervision, and work unit engagement
Barnes, C. M., Lucianetti, L., Bhave, D. P., & Christian, M. S. (2015) · Academy of Management Journal · doi:10.5465/amj.2013.1063 · Cited by 441 · see citing works
Leadership, creativity and innovation: a meta-analytic review
Lee, A., Legood, A., Hughes, D., Tian, A. W., Newman, A., & Knight, C. (2020) · European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1080/1359432x.2019.1661837 · Cited by 425 · see citing works
“…leadership: destructive and authoritarian Typically, leadership research has focused on finding the most effective leadership methods and has focused on positive forms of leadership (Schyns & Schilling, 2013), perhaps to the detriment of our understanding of ineffective or negative leadership.”
Background
Ethical leadership: Meta-analytic evidence of criterion-related and incremental validity.
Ng, T. W. H., & Feldman, D. C. (2015) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0038246 · Cited by 377 · see citing works
“Destructive leadership refers to leader behaviors that stifle the professional growth and development of followers or even hurt their well-being (Schyns & Schilling, 2013), such as being autocratic, despotic, or abusive.”
The recovery paradox: Portraying the complex interplay between job stressors, lack of recovery, and poor well-being
Sonnentag, S. (2018) · Research in Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.riob.2018.11.002 · Cited by 405 · see citing works
The dark side of leadership: A systematic literature review and meta-analysis of destructive leadership research
Mackey, J. D., Parker Ellen, B., McAllister, C. P., & Alexander, K. C. (2021) · Journal of Business Research · doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2020.10.037 · Cited by 320 · see citing works
Ethical leadership
Den Hartog, D. N. (2015) · Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-032414-111237 · Cited by 324 · see citing works
Abusive supervision: A systematic review and fundamental rethink
Fischer, T., Tian, A. W., Lee, A., & Hughes, D. J. (2021) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2021.101540 · Cited by 318 · see citing works
Perils of being close to a bad leader in a bad environment: Exploring the combined effects of despotic leadership, leader member exchange, and perceived organizational politics on behaviors
Naseer, S., Raja, U., Syed, F., Donia, M. B. L., & Darr, W. A. (2015) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2015.09.005 · Cited by 316 · see citing works
Leadership Styles: A Comprehensive Assessment and Way Forward
Fischer, T., & Sitkin, S. B. (2023) · Academy of Management Annals · doi:10.5465/annals.2020.0340 · Cited by 303 · see citing works
Consequences of abusive supervision: A meta-analytic review
Zhang, Y. E., & Liao, Z. (2015) · Asia Pacific Journal of Management · doi:10.1007/s10490-015-9425-0 · Cited by 299 · see citing works
Moving beyond assumptions of deviance: The reconceptualization and measurement of workplace gossip.
Brady, D. L., Brown, D. J., & Liang, L. H. (2016) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/apl0000164 · Cited by 294 · see citing works
Antecedents of Abusive Supervision: a Meta-analytic Review
Zhang, Y., & Bednall, T. C. (2015) · Journal of Business Ethics · doi:10.1007/s10551-015-2657-6 · Cited by 273 · see citing works
“A recent meta-analysis summarized the research findings on the consequences of abusive supervision (Schyns and Schilling 2013).1 However, a meta-analytic review of the & Yucheng Zhang yucheng.eason.zhang@gmail.com Timothy C. Bednall tbednall@swin.edu.au 1 Research Institute of Economics and…”
Influential
#Trending topics in careers: a review and future research agenda
Akkermans, J., & Kubasch, S. (2017) · Career Development International · doi:10.1108/cdi-08-2017-0143 · Cited by 234 · see citing works
“For example, it would be important to find out what the role of certain dark personality traits (O’Boyle et al., 2012) or destructive leadership (Schyns and Schilling, 2013) would be on the career development of individuals.”
Background
Well-being and HRM in the changing workplace
Kowalski, T., & Loretto, W. (2017) · The International Journal of Human Resource Management · doi:10.1080/09585192.2017.1345205 · Cited by 239 · see citing works
“In addition to long standing risk factors such as high workload, newer challenges have also emerged for example, of destructive/toxic leadership (e.g. Schyns and Schilling, 2013; Boddy, 2011), bullying (Woodrow and Guest, 2014) and cyber bullying (Coyne et al, 2016).”
Background
Are they among us? A conceptual framework of the relationship between the dark triad personality and counterproductive work behaviors (CWBs)
Cohen, A. G. (2015) · Human Resource Management Review · doi:10.1016/j.hrmr.2015.07.003 · Cited by 239 · see citing works
“Aggression (Berry, Sackett, & Tobares, 2010) and workplace harassment (Bowling & Beehr, 2006) were also found to be moderately related to CWBs. Finally, Schyns and Schilling (2013), in their meta-analysis, found quite a strong relationship between CWBs and destructive leadership.”
Background
Shedding Light on Leaders’ Self-Interest: Theory and Measurement of Exploitative Leadership
Schmid, E. A., Verdorfer, A. P., & Peus, C. V. (2017) · Journal of Management · doi:10.1177/0149206317707810 · Cited by 243 · see citing works
Leadership behaviour and leader self-reported well-being: A review, integration and meta-analytic examination
Kaluza, A. J., Boer, D., Buengeler, C., & van Dick, R. (2019) · Work & Stress · doi:10.1080/02678373.2019.1617369 · Cited by 239 · see citing works
“While the attention in leadership research has recently shifted towards dark sides of leadership and follower outcomes (e.g. Schyns & Schilling, 2013), the implications of such leadership for leaders themselves, especially their well-being, have been studied less systematically.”
Background
Good relationships at work: The effects of Leader–Member Exchange and Team–Member Exchange on psychological empowerment, emotional exhaustion, and depression
Schermuly, C. C., & Meyer, B. M. (2015) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/job.2060 · Cited by 206 · see citing works
A meta-analysis of the role of trust in the leadership- performance relationship
Legood, A., van der Werff, L., Lee, A., & Den Hartog, D. (2021) · European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1080/1359432x.2020.1819241 · Cited by 193 · see citing works
Abusive Supervision Through the Lens of Employee State Paranoia
Chan, M. E., & McAllister, D. J. (2013) · Academy of Management Review · doi:10.5465/amr.2011.0419 · Cited by 195 · see citing works
“This is precisely the finding of one recent meta-analysis of research concerning abusive supervision and damaging leadership (Schyns & Schilling, 2013).”
Result
Autocratic leaders and authoritarian followers revisited: A review and agenda for the future
Harms, P. D., Wood, D., Landay, K., Lester, P. B., & Lester, G. V. (2017) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2017.12.007 · Cited by 188 · see citing works
Destructive Leadership: A Critique of Leader-Centric Perspectives and Toward a More Holistic Definition
Thoroughgood, C. N., Sawyer, K. B., Padilla, A., & Lunsford, L. G. (2016) · Journal of Business Ethics · doi:10.1007/s10551-016-3257-9 · Cited by 182 · see citing works
“, hostility, coercion, theft, corruption) believed to be associated with negative consequences for followers and/or the organization (e.g., Einarsen et al. 2007; Ferris et al. 2007; Krasikova et al. 2013; Shaw et al. 2011; Schyns and Schilling 2013).”
BackgroundInfluential
Stress as Offense to Self: a Promising Approach Comes of Age
Semmer, N. K., Tschan, F., Jacobshagen, N., Beehr, T. A., Elfering, A., Kälin, W., & Meier, L. L. (2019) · Occupational Health Science · doi:10.1007/s41542-019-00041-5 · Cited by 187 · see citing works
Country differences in the relationship between leadership and employee engagement: A meta-analysis
Li, P., Sun, J., Taris, T. W., Xing, L., & Peeters, M. C. W. (2020) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2020.101458 · Cited by 210 · see citing works
Out of control: A self-control perspective on the link between surface acting and abusive supervision.
Yam, K. C., Fehr, R., Keng, F. T., Klotz, A. C., & Reynolds, S. J. (2015) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/apl0000043 · Cited by 175 · see citing works
“Given numerous negative consequences of abusive supervision (Schyns & Schilling, 2013; Tepper, 2007) and the documented ineffectiveness of surface acting (Hülsheger & Schewe, 2011), organizations might even benefit from explicitly discouraging surface acting.”
Background
Main and interactive effects of weekly transformational and laissez‐faire leadership on followers’ trust in the leader and leader effectiveness
Breevaart, K., & Zacher, H. (2019) · Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1111/joop.12253 · Cited by 188 · see citing works
“Yet, some researchers wonder whether it is appropriate to categorize laissez-faire leadership as a form of destructive leadership (Schyns & Schilling, 2013).”
Leader‐signaled knowledge hiding: Effects on employees' job attitudes and empowerment
Offergelt, F., Spörrle, M., Moser, K., & Shaw, J. D. (2018) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/job.2343 · Cited by 173 · see citing works
CEO power and stock price crash risk in China: Do female directors' critical mass and ownership structure matter?
Shahab, Y., Ntim, C., Ullah, F., Chen, Y.-G., & Ye, Z.-W. (2020) · International Review of Financial Analysis · doi:10.1016/j.irfa.2020.101457 · Cited by 153 · see citing works
Advancing the science of 21st-century leadership development: Theory, research, and practice
Day, D. V., Riggio, R. E., Tan, S. J., & Conger, J. A. (2021) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2021.101557 · Cited by 188 · see citing works
Abusive supervision and subordinate performance: Instrumentality considerations in the emergence and consequences of abusive supervision.
Walter, F. H., Lam, C. K., van der Vegt, G. S., Huang, X., & Miao, Q. (2015) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0038513 · Cited by 167 · see citing works
“…have shown that such behavior imposes severe psychological costs on subordinates, including reduced job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and well-being as well as increased psychological distress (for recent reviews, see Martinko, Harvey, Brees, & Mackey, 2013; Schyns & Schilling, 2013).”
BackgroundInfluential
A meta-analytic review of the consequences of servant leadership: The moderating roles of cultural factors
Zhang, Y., Zheng, Y., Zhang, L., Xu, S., Liu, X., & Chen, W. (2021) · Asia Pacific Journal of Management · doi:10.1007/s10490-018-9639-z · Cited by 167 · see citing works
Leader Narcissism Predicts Malicious Envy and Supervisor-Targeted Counterproductive Work Behavior: Evidence from Field and Experimental Research
Braun, S. H., Aydin, N., Frey, D., & Peus, C. V. (2016) · Journal of Business Ethics · doi:10.1007/s10551-016-3224-5 · Cited by 161 · see citing works
“According to Schyns and Schilling (2013), ‘‘followers might shy away from direct resistance to avoid further destructive leadership behavior and a spiral of abuse’’ (p. 149).”
Leading day-to-day: A review of the daily causes and consequences of leadership behaviors
Kelemen, T. K., Matthews, S. H., & Breevaart, K. (2020) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2019.101344 · Cited by 155 · see citing works
The leadership trilogy: A review of the third decade of The Leadership Quarterly
Gardner, W. L., Lowe, K. B., Meuser, J. D., Noghani, F., Gullifor, D. P., & Cogliser, C. C. (2020) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2019.101379 · Cited by 162 · see citing works
Visualizing the landscape and evolution of leadership research
Zhu, J., Song, L. J., Zhu, L., & Johnson, R. E. (2018) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2018.06.003 · Cited by 152 · see citing works
The impact of abusive supervision on service employees’ proactive customer service performance in the hotel industry
Lyu, Y., Zhou, X. L., Li, W., Wan, J., Zhang, J., & Qiu, C. (2016) · International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management · doi:10.1108/ijchm-03-2015-0128 · Cited by 147 · see citing works
Defeating the Toxic Boss: The Nature of Toxic Leadership and the Role of Followers
Milošević, I., Maric, S., & Lončar, D. (2019) · Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies · doi:10.1177/1548051819833374 · Cited by 146 · see citing works
“Nonetheless, despite the low intent to cause harm, the potential harmfulness of their actions (or inactions) is evident (Schyns & Schilling, 2013).”
BackgroundInfluential
The effect of internet use on well-being: Meta-analysis
Çıkrıkçı, Ö. (2016) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2016.09.021 · Cited by 137 · see citing works
The influence of ethical leadership on academic employees’ organizational citizenship behavior and turnover intention
Shareef, R. A., & Atan, T. (2018) · Management Decision · doi:10.1108/md-08-2017-0721 · Cited by 137 · see citing works
The impact of exploitative leadership on frontline hospitality employees’ service performance: A social exchange perspective
Wu, L., Sun, Z., Ye, Y., Kwan, H. K., & Yang, M. (2021) · International Journal of Hospitality Management · doi:10.1016/j.ijhm.2021.102954 · Cited by 134 · see citing works
Frogs in boiling water: a moderated-mediation model of exploitative leadership, fear of negative evaluation and knowledge hiding behaviors
Syed, F., Naseer, S., Akhtar, M., Husnain, M., & Kashif, M. (2021) · Journal of Knowledge Management · doi:10.1108/jkm-11-2019-0611 · Cited by 118 · see citing works
Defeating abusive supervision: Training supervisors to support subordinates.
González‐Morales, M. G., Kernan, M. C., Becker, T. E., & Eisenberger, R. (2016) · Journal of Occupational Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/ocp0000061 · Cited by 132 · see citing works
“…(DeRue et al., 2011; Judge et al., 2004; Lambert et al., 2012; Oldham & Cummings, 1996) and, more generally, destructive leadership-subordinate outcome correlations are largely negative and opposite in direction to constructive leadership-outcome correlations (Schyns & Schilling, 2013).”
BackgroundResult
If Only my Leader Would just Do <i>Something</i> ! Passive Leadership Undermines Employee Well-being Through Role Stressors and Psychological Resource Depletion
Barling, J., & Frone, M. R. (2017) · Stress and Health · doi:10.1002/smi.2697 · Cited by 130 · see citing works
“Stress and Health (2016) © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. harm the organization or its employees (e.g. Kelloway et al., 2005; Krasikova, Green & LeBreton, 2013; Schyns & Schilling, 2013).”
Are Authentic Leaders Always Moral? The Role of Machiavellianism in the Relationship Between Authentic Leadership and Morality
Sendjaya, S., Pekerti, A., Härtel, C. E. J., Hirst, G., & Butarbutar, I. (2014) · Journal of Business Ethics · doi:10.1007/s10551-014-2351-0 · Cited by 130 · see citing works
“This is also an area of ripe for further investigation, particularly since little is known about when and how Machiavellianism impacts performance at the organizational, team, and individual levels (Schyns and Schilling 2012).”
Background
Leader Behavior as a Determinant of Health at Work: Specification and Evidence of Five Key Pathways
Wegge, J., Shemla, M., & Haslam, S. A. (2014) · German Journal of Human Resource Management Zeitschrift für Personalforschung · doi:10.1177/239700221402800102 · Cited by 132 · see citing works
“Extending the arguments of DeRue et al. (2011), in this category we also consider destructive leadership behavior – for example, as witnessed in the form of abusive or toxic supervision (see Schyns & Schilling, 2013).”
BackgroundResult
We have emotions but can’t show them! Authoritarian leadership, emotion suppression climate, and team performance
Chiang, J. T., Chen, X.-P., Liu, H., Akutsu, S., & Wang, Z. (2020) · Human Relations · doi:10.1177/0018726720908649 · Cited by 137 · see citing works
“However, recent research postulates that they are distinct because, unlike authoritarian leadership, autocratic leadership is often not considered destructive or on the “dark-side” of leadership (Dotlich and Cairo, 2003; Harms et al., 2018; Krasikova et al., 2013; Schyns and Schilling, 2013).”
Background
Toxic Leadership and the Masculinity Contest Culture: How “Win or Die” Cultures Breed Abusive Leadership
Matos, K., O’Neill, O. A., & Lei, X. (2018) · Journal of Social Issues · doi:10.1111/josi.12284 · Cited by 124 · see citing works
Unethical Leadership: Review, Synthesis and Directions for Future Research
Hassan, S., Kaur, P., Muchiri, M., Ogbonnaya, C. N., & Dhir, A. (2022) · Journal of Business Ethics · doi:10.1007/s10551-022-05081-6 · Cited by 140 · see citing works
Nightmare Bosses: The Impact of Abusive Supervision on Employees’ Sleep, Emotions, and Creativity
Han, G. H., Harms, P. D., & Bai, Y. (2015) · Journal of Business Ethics · doi:10.1007/s10551-015-2859-y · Cited by 122 · see citing works
Different Shades—Different Effects? Consequences of Different Types of Destructive Leadership
Schmid, E. A., Verdorfer, A. P., & Peus, C. V. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01289 · Cited by 122 · see citing works
“This distinction is well established and commonly used when it Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 2 July 2018 | Volume 9 | Article 1289 comes to organizing empirical evidence on destructive leadership (Aasland et al., 2010; Thoroughgood et al., 2012; Schyns and Schilling, 2013).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluential
The context deficit in leadership research
Johns, G. (2023) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2023.101755 · Cited by 134 · see citing works
Resetting the Clock on Dynamic Leader Behaviors: A Conceptual Integration and Agenda for Future Research
McClean, S. T., Barnes, C. M., Courtright, S. H., & Johnson, R. E. (2019) · Academy of Management Annals · doi:10.5465/annals.2017.0081 · Cited by 132 · see citing works
Healthy Leadership in Turbulent Times: The Effectiveness of Health‐Oriented Leadership in Crisis
Klebe, L., Felfe, J., & Klug, K. (2021) · British Journal of Management · doi:10.1111/1467-8551.12498 · Cited by 126 · see citing works
“Positive leadership behaviour is related to higher levels of follower health, whereas negative leadership behaviour is related to lower levels of follower health (Schyns and Schilling, 2013; Skakon et al., 2010).”
Background
Does ethical leadership reduce turnover intention? The mediating effects of psychological empowerment and organizational identification
Suifan, T. S., Diab, H., Alhyari, S., & Sweis, R. J. (2020) · Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment · doi:10.1080/10911359.2019.1690611 · Cited by 129 · see citing works
“…leadership styles (transactional, transformational, etc.) have been sufficiently investigated in the literature (e.g., Hughes, Avey, & Nixon, 2010; Schyns & Schilling, 2013), ethical leadership’s influence on turnover intention still remains ambiguous with only a few studies empirically testing…”
Background
Leadership in the public sector: A meta‐analysis of styles, outcomes, contexts, and methods
Backhaus, L., & Vogel, R. (2022) · Public Administration Review · doi:10.1111/puar.13516 · Cited by 146 · see citing works
Abusive Supervision and Employee Deviance: A Multifoci Justice Perspective
Park, H., Hoobler, J. M., Wu, J., Liden, R. C., Hu, J. J., & Wilson, M. S. (2017) · Journal of Business Ethics · doi:10.1007/s10551-017-3749-2 · Cited by 118 · see citing works
“Departing from the traditional emphasis of positive leadership, recently scholars have sought to document the detrimental effects of the “dark side” of leadership on employee outcomes (for a review see Schyns and Schilling 2013).”
Roles of gender and identification on abusive supervision and proactive behavior
Ouyang, K., Lam, W., & Wang, W. (2015) · Asia Pacific Journal of Management · doi:10.1007/s10490-015-9410-7 · Cited by 115 · see citing works
“…disrespectful way by their supervisors, their need for esteem as individuals cannot be fulfilled, which makes them less willing to dedicate themselves to their work and reduces their sense of belonging to the organization (e.g., Amabile, Schatzel, Moneta, & Kramer, 2004; Schyns & Schilling, 2013).”
Background
Supervisors' emotional exhaustion and abusive supervision: The moderating roles of perceived subordinate performance and supervisor self-monitoring
Lam, C. K., Walter, F. H., & Huang, X. (2017) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/job.2193 · Cited by 114 · see citing works
Toward a Better Understanding of Behavioral Ethics in the Workplace
David De Cremer, A., & Moore, C. (2019) · Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012218-015151 · Cited by 119 · see citing works
“Ethical leadership also shares conceptual ground with abusive supervision (Mackey et al. 2015) and destructive leadership (Schyns & Schilling 2013), and the constructs share similar correlates.”
Background
Narcissistic Leaders and Their Victims: Followers Low on Self-Esteem and Low on Core Self-Evaluations Suffer Most
Nevicka, B., De Hoogh, A. H. B., Den Hartog, D. N., & Belschak, F. D. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00422 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
“…have many detrimental consequences for followers, such as psychological distress (e.g., strain, emotional exhaustion, and depression), lower family wellbeing, and higher turnover intentions (Tepper, 2000, 2007; Aryee et al., 2008; Wu and Hu, 2009; Carlson et al., 2012; Schyns and Schilling, 2013).”
Background
High-performance work practices, employee well-being, and supportive leadership: spillover mechanisms and boundary conditions between HRM and leadership behavior
Hauff, S., Felfe, J., & Klug, K. (2020) · The International Journal of Human Resource Management · doi:10.1080/09585192.2020.1841819 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
“Further, concerning HR practices and leader behaviors, it may be more relevant how employees perceive their situations for their well-being than objective conditions (Han et al., 2019; Schyns & Schilling, 2013).”
Background
Quitting the Boss? The Role of Manager Influence Tactics and Employee Emotional Engagement in Voluntary Turnover
Reina, C. S., Rogers, K. M., Peterson, S. J., Byron, K., & Hom, P. W. (2017) · Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies · doi:10.1177/1548051817709007 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
“…thought (T. B. Harris, Li, & Kirkman, 2014), which further emphasizes the need to take specific leader behaviors into account to understand their impact on follower outcomes such as turnover (e.g., see Schyns & Schilling, 2013, for a meta-analysis on outcomes of destructive leader behaviors).”
Background
A process model of self-regulation and leadership: How attentional resource capacity and negative emotions influence constructive and destructive leadership
Collins, M. D., & Jackson, C. J. (2015) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2015.02.005 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
“There are good reasons for this shift in focus, as mounting evidence suggests that destructive leadership harms themental and physical health of employees and degrades organizational performance (Aasland et al., 2010; Hershcovis & Rafferty, 2012; Schyns & Schilling, 2013).”
Background
The Dark Side of Development: A Systems Characterization of the Negative Mentoring Experiences of Doctoral Students
Tuma, T. T., Adams, J. D., Hultquist, B. C., & Dolan, E. L. (2021) · CBE—Life Sciences Education · doi:10.1187/cbe.20-10-0231 · Cited by 118 · see citing works
The Relative Effects of Constructive, Laissez-Faire, and Tyrannical Leadership on Subordinate Job Satisfaction
Skogstad, A., Aasland, M. S., Nielsen, M. B., Hetland, J., Matthiesen, S. B., & Einarsen, S. V. (2014) · Zeitschrift für Psychologie · doi:10.1027/2151-2604/a000189 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
Toxic leadership: emotional distress and coping strategy
Bhandarker, A., & Rai, S. (2019) · International Journal of Organization Theory and Behavior · doi:10.1108/ijotb-03-2018-0027 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
The evolution of leadership: Past insights, present trends, and future directions
Liden, R. C., Wang, X., & Wang, Y. (2025) · Journal of Business Research · doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2024.115036 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
Is Transformational Leadership Healthy for Employees? A Multilevel Analysis in 16 Nations
Zwingmann, I., Wegge, J., Wolf, S., Rudolf, M., Schmidt, M., & Richter, P. (2014) · German Journal of Human Resource Management Zeitschrift für Personalforschung · doi:10.1177/239700221402800103 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
“Thus, in line with the findings of the recent meta-analysis regarding negative effects of destructive forms of leadership (Schyns & Schilling, 2013), it can be expected that laissez faire leadership often leads to conflicts that, in turn, hamper employees’ health.”
Result
How despotic leadership jeopardizes employees' performance: the roles of quality of work life and work withdrawal
Nauman, S., Zheng, C. S.-M., & Basit, A. A. (2020) · Leadership & Organization Development Journal · doi:10.1108/lodj-11-2019-0476 · Cited by 114 · see citing works
A double-edged sword: Relationship between full-range leadership behaviors and followers' hair cortisol level
Diebig, M., Bormann, K. C., & Rowold, J. (2016) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2016.04.001 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
Zombie leadership: Dead ideas that still walk among us
Haslam, S. A., Alvesson, M., & Reicher, S. D. (2024) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2023.101770 · Cited by 100 · see citing works
Laissez-Faire Leadership and Affective Commitment: the Roles of Leader-Member Exchange and Subordinate Relational Self-concept
Robert, V., & Vandenberghe, C. (2020) · Journal of Business and Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10869-020-09700-9 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Destructive leadership
Erickson, A., Shaw, B., Murray, J., & Branch, S. (2015) · Organizational Dynamics · doi:10.1016/j.orgdyn.2015.09.003 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
An eye for an eye? A meta-analysis of negative reciprocity in organizations.
Greco, L., Whitson, J., O’Boyle, E. H., Wang, C. S., & Kim, J. (2019) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/apl0000396 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
“…xppws S 1 1/31/19 10:07 Art: 2017-3602 APA NLM kowski, & Bravo, 2007), abusive supervision (Mackey et al., 2017; Schyns & Schilling, 2013), and counterproductive work behavior (i.e., Berry, Lelchook, & Clark, 2012; Berry et al., 2007; Dalal, 2005; Hershcovis et…”
Background
Outcomes of ethical leadership among salespeople
DeConinck, J. B. (2014) · Journal of Business Research · doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2014.10.011 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
The unfolding impact of leader identity entrepreneurship on burnout, work engagement, and turnover intentions.
Steffens, N. K., Yang, J., Jetten, J., Haslam, S. A., & Lipponen, J. (2017) · Journal of Occupational Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/ocp0000090 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Servant Leadership and Employee Engagement: A Qualitative Study
Canavesi, A., & Minelli, E. (2022) · Employee Responsibilities and Rights Journal · doi:10.1007/s10672-021-09389-9 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Knowledge Sharing, Abusive Supervision, and Support
Kim, S. L., Kim, M., & Yun, S. (2015) · Group & Organization Management · doi:10.1177/1059601115577514 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
“Although both these types of leader behaviors bring harmful results, such as low satisfaction and poor employee performance, the consequences of abusive supervision are much more severe than those of laissez-faire supervision (Schyns & Schilling, 2013).”
Background
Fire in the belly: the impact of despotic leadership on employees work-related outcomes in the hospitality setting
Albashiti, B., Hamid, Z., & Aboramadan, M. (2021) · International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management · doi:10.1108/ijchm-03-2021-0394 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
How are social stressors at work related to well-being and health? A systematic review and meta-analysis
Gerhardt, C., Semmer, N. K., Sauter, S., Walker, A., de Wijn, A. N., Kälin, W., Kottwitz, M. U., Kersten, B., Ulrich, B., & Elfering, A. (2021) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-021-10894-7 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
“One approach focuses on specific types of social stressors such as bullying [22] or abusive supervision [23, 24]; for an overview see [25].”
BackgroundInfluential
Abusive supervision and subordinates’ physical and mental health: the effects of job satisfaction and power distance orientation
Peltokorpi, V., & Ramaswami, A. (2019) · The International Journal of Human Resource Management · doi:10.1080/09585192.2018.1511617 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
Workplace incivility as a moderator of the relationships between polychronicity and job outcomes
Araslı, H., Namin, B. H., & Abubakar, A. M. (2018) · International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management · doi:10.1108/ijchm-12-2016-0655 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
The effectiveness of health-oriented leadership interventions for the improvement of mental health of employees in the health care sector: a systematic review
Stuber, F., Seifried-Dübon, T., Rieger, M. A., Gündel, H., Ruhle, S. A., Zipfel, S., & Junne, F. (2020) · International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health · doi:10.1007/s00420-020-01583-w · Cited by 93 · see citing works
“Destructive leadership behavior is negatively associated with well-being (Schyns and Schilling 2013), and a lack of supportive leadership decreased self-rated health in men even ten years later (Schmidt et al.”
Background
How Abusive Supervisors Influence Employees’ Voice and Silence: The Effects of Interactional Justice and Organizational Attribution
Wang, R., & Jiang, J. (2014) · The Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/00224545.2014.990410 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Does Despotic Leadership Harm Employee Family Life: Exploring the Effects of Emotional Exhaustion and Anxiety
Nauman, S., Fatima, T., & Haq, I. U. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00601 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
“…the negative aspects of leadership are a matter of grave concern for organizations (Hoobler and Hu, 2013) and further investigation is needed (Schyns and Schilling, 2013; Collins and Jackson, 2015) into what causes destructive leadership and how its negative aspects affect subordinates’…”
Background
Leaders and followers behaving badly: A meta‐analytic examination of curvilinear relationships between destructive leadership and followers’ workplace behaviors
Mackey, J. D., McAllister, C. P., Maher, L. P., & Wang, G. A. (2018) · Personnel Psychology · doi:10.1111/peps.12286 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
You Abuse and I Criticize: An Ego Depletion and Leader–Member Exchange Examination of Abusive Supervision and Destructive Voice
Mackey, J., Huang, L., & He, W. (2018) · Journal of Business Ethics · doi:10.1007/s10551-018-4024-x · Cited by 86 · see citing works
Time-related work stress and counterproductive work behavior
Clercq, D. D., Haq, I. U., & Azeem, M. U. (2019) · Personnel Review · doi:10.1108/pr-07-2018-0241 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
“Previous research indicates that destructive leadership styles might prompt employees to undertake negative work behaviours too, in response to their adverse treatment (Schyns and Schilling, 2013), so this study also controlled for employees’ beliefs that their leader has despotic tendencies with a six-item scale (De…”
BackgroundInfluential
Meta-analytic and primary investigations of the role of followers in ratings of leadership behavior in organizations
Wang, G., Van Iddekinge, C. H., Zhang, L., & Bishoff, J. (2019) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/apl0000345 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
When Employees Retaliate Against Self-Serving Leaders: The Influence of the Ethical Climate
Decoster, S., Stouten, J., & Tripp, T. M. (2019) · Journal of Business Ethics · doi:10.1007/s10551-019-04218-4 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
Unsustainable Working Conditions: The Association of Destructive Leadership, Use of Technology, and Workload with Workaholism and Exhaustion
Molino, M., Cortese, C. G., & Ghislieri, C. (2019) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su11020446 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
“Considering the role of managers and supervisors, this study investigated the dark side of leadership and its consequences for followers [27,28].”
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Organisational psychopaths: a ten year update
Boddy, C. R. (2015) · Management Decision · doi:10.1108/md-04-2015-0114 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
Zu Risiken und Nebenwirkungen lesen Sie …–Negative Effekte von Coaching
Schermuly, C. C., Haupt, M.-L., Schölmerich, F., & Rauterberg, H. (2014) · Zeitschrift für Arbeits- und Organisationspsychologie A&O · doi:10.1026/0932-4089/a000129 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Relative Importance of Leader Influences for Subordinates’ Proactive Behaviors, Prosocial Behaviors, and Task Performance
Chiaburu, D. S., Smith, T. A., Wang, J., & Zimmerman, R. D. (2014) · Journal of Personnel Psychology · doi:10.1027/1866-5888/a000105 · Cited by 85 · see citing works

Are Bad Leaders indeed Bad for Employees? A Meta-Analysis of the Lagged effects of Destructive LeadershipPreprint
Li, P. (2020) · doi:10.17605/osf.io/26gbf
The dark side of leadership: A systematic literature review and meta-analysis of destructive leadership research
Mackey, J. D., Parker Ellen, B., McAllister, C. P., & Alexander, K. C. (2021) · Journal of Business Research · doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2020.10.037 · Cited by 320 · see citing works
Are Bad Leaders indeed Bad for Employees? A Meta-Analysis and Review of Longitudinal Studies
Li, P., Yin, K., Shi, J., Taris, T. W., & Damen, T. G. E. (2022) · Academy of Management Proceedings · doi:10.5465/ambpp.2022.13020abstract · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Different Shades—Different Effects? Consequences of Different Types of Destructive Leadership
Schmid, E. A., Verdorfer, A. P., & Peus, C. V. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01289 · Cited by 122 · see citing works
Leaders and followers behaving badly: A meta‐analytic examination of curvilinear relationships between destructive leadership and followers’ workplace behaviors
Mackey, J. D., McAllister, C. P., Maher, L. P., & Wang, G. A. (2018) · Personnel Psychology · doi:10.1111/peps.12286 · Cited by 95 · see citing works

Authors: Schyns, B., & Schilling, J.
Affiliations: Durham University (GB)
Hochschule Hannover (DE)
Corresponding author: Schyns, Birgit
ORCID: Schyns, Birgit
Schilling, Jan
Venue: The Leadership Quarterly
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 2013-02
Volume: 24
Issue: 1
Pages: 138-158
ISSN: 1048-9843 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/j.leaqua.2012.09.001
OpenAlex: W2013875734
Cited by: 1,245
References: 120
Citations by year: 2026: 113 · 2025: 113 · 2024: 110 · 2023: 136 · 2022: 126 · 2021: 143 · 2020: 109 · 2019: 105 · 2018: 87 · 2017: 57 · 2016: 49 · 2015: 46 · 2014: 36 · 2013: 14
FWCI: 6.27
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: green
durham-repository.worktribe.com
Licence: cc-by
www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
www.elsevier.com/legal/tdmrep-license (tdm)
Locations: The Leadership Quarterly (publishedVersion)
Durham Research Online (Durham University) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
Topics: Social Sciences › Business, Management and Accounting › Organizational Behavior and Human Resource Management › Job Satisfaction and Organizational Behavior
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Workplace Violence and Bullying
Social Sciences › Business, Management and Accounting › Organizational Behavior and Human Resource Management › Employee Performance and Leadership
Keywords: destructive leadership, constructive leadership, leader attitudes, counterproductive work behavior, turnover intention, employee well-being, individual performance, follower outcomes

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How bad are the effects of bad leaders? A meta-analysis of destructive leadership and its outcomes

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