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The influences of environmental enrichment, cognitive enhancement, and physical exercise on brain development: Can we alter the developmental trajectory of ADHD?
Open accessAbstract
Attention-deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is characterized by a pervasive pattern of developmentally inappropriate inattentive, impulsive and hyperactive behaviors that typically begin during the preschool years and often persist into adulthood. The most effective and widely used treatments for ADHD are medication and behavior modification. These empirically-supported interventions are generally successful in reducing ADHD symptoms, but treatment effects are rarely maintained beyond the active intervention. Because ADHD is now generally thought of as a chronic disorder that is often present well into adolescence and early adulthood, the need for continued treatment throughout the lifetime is both costly and problematic for a number of logistical reasons. Therefore, it would be highly beneficial if treatments would have lasting effects that remain after the intervention is terminated. This review examines the burgeoning literature on the underlying neural determinants of ADHD along research demonstrating powerful influences of environmental factors on brain development and functioning. Based upon these largely distinct scientific literatures, we propose an approach that employs directed play and physical exercise to promote brain growth which, in turn, could lead to the development of potentially more enduring treatments for the disorder.
Overview
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Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
This review argues that medication and behavioral treatments for ADHD reduce symptoms but rarely produce lasting gains, and it proposes that environmental enrichment, cognitive challenge, and physical exercise—especially through directed play—may promote brain development and compensatory neural growth. The authors frame this as a conceptual approach that could potentially alter the developmental trajectory of ADHD rather than cure its core pathology.
Key findings
- Stimulant medication and behavioral interventions are well-supported and improve ADHD symptoms and functioning, but benefits generally do not persist after active treatment. The review cites that 32–64% of children continued to show clinically significant ADHD despite intensive medication and behavioral treatment, and that more than half of children prescribed stimulants stop within a school year, with most adhering for fewer than two months and fewer than 10% continuing long-term medication.
- Neuroimaging and neuropsychological evidence indicates ADHD involves differences across frontostriatal circuits and many other cortical/subcortical regions, including cerebellum and corpus callosum. One cited longitudinal line reports cortical maturation delays of 2–3 years depending on region, and a meta-analysis of 83 studies (N = 6,703) found executive-function effect sizes generally in the .46–.69 range, though such weaknesses were described as neither necessary nor sufficient to explain all ADHD.
- The authors highlight a developmental compensation hypothesis: primary subcortical deficits may remain relatively static, while later prefrontal/executive development could reduce symptom severity. Consistent findings include links between cortical development trajectories and outcome, and the DRD4 7-repeat allele being associated with normalized cortical thinning, better outcome, higher IQ, and better global functioning.
- Animal and limited human literature suggests environmental enrichment and exercise increase neurogenesis, dendritic branching, synaptic density, neurotrophins such as BDNF, long-term potentiation, and memory performance. In children with ADHD, only two exercise studies are cited, and neither assessed clinical response or brain changes; cognitive training studies improve working memory, attention, and some behavior, but are narrow, computer-based, and sometimes poorly retained (e.g., 18/27 completed one working-memory trial).
Methods
- Narrative review synthesizing separate literatures on evidence-based ADHD treatments, neural substrates of ADHD, neurodevelopment, environmental enrichment, physical exercise, and cognitive training.
- No new empirical data are collected; the paper draws on animal studies, human neuroimaging, neuropsychological meta-analyses, clinical trials, and developmental genetics.
- The authors propose a conceptual intervention model using directed play and physical exercise, delivered in family, school, or group settings, to promote broad neural and cognitive growth.
Limitations
- The paper states that human evidence for environmental enrichment is limited, child research is sparse, and only two exercise studies in ADHD exist, neither of which examined clinical response or brain-related changes. It also notes that data on play as a therapeutic approach are sparse and that many questions remain about clinical utility.
- The authors acknowledge that short-term effects of the proposed play/exercise approach are unlikely to match medication effect sizes, that extended follow-up would be needed, and that they do not claim it targets the core neural pathology of ADHD.
- Evident from the text: as a review, it offers no direct test of the proposed intervention; the approach is speculative, compliance and generalizability are uncertain, and ADHD heterogeneity may limit interventions focused on single cognitive domains.
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In the paper
“However, such gains are rarely maintained after the termination of treatment (Chronis, Pelham, Jr., Gnagy, Roberts, & Aronoff, 2003; Chronis et al., 2004; Jensen et al., 2007)”
§ The Influences of Environmental Enrichment, Cognitive Enhancement, and Physical Exercise on Brain Development: Can we Alter the Developmental Trajectory of ADHD? > INTRODUCTION
What the sources say
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In the paper
“Several effective empirically-validated psychopharmacologic and behavioral interventions for ADHD are currently available.”
§ The Influences of Environmental Enrichment, Cognitive Enhancement, and Physical Exercise on Brain Development: Can we Alter the Developmental Trajectory of ADHD? > INTRODUCTION
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In the paper
“the behavior of a significant number of children with ADHD is not normalized by the use of these interventions (Hoza et al., 2005; Swanson et al., 2001).”
§ The Influences of Environmental Enrichment, Cognitive Enhancement, and Physical Exercise on Brain Development: Can we Alter the Developmental Trajectory of ADHD? > OVERVIEW OF EVIDENCE-BASED TREATMENTS FOR ADHD > Key Limitations of Current Evidence-Based Interventions for ADHD
What the sources say
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“Swanson and colleagues (Swanson et al., 2001) found that 32–64% of children continued to exhibit clinically significant levels of ADHD despite intensive stimulant medication and behavioral treatment regimens.”
§ The Influences of Environmental Enrichment, Cognitive Enhancement, and Physical Exercise on Brain Development: Can we Alter the Developmental Trajectory of ADHD? > OVERVIEW OF EVIDENCE-BASED TREATMENTS FOR ADHD > Key Limitations of Current Evidence-Based Interventions for ADHD
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Swanson et al., 2001 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“the large Multimodal Treatment Study of ADHD (MTA Study) found that their pure behavioral treatment group improved to a similar degree as their community treated control group, the majority of whom received medication treatment from their provider outside of the study (MTA Cooperative Group, 1999).”
§ The Influences of Environmental Enrichment, Cognitive Enhancement, and Physical Exercise on Brain Development: Can we Alter the Developmental Trajectory of ADHD? > OVERVIEW OF EVIDENCE-BASED TREATMENTS FOR ADHD
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites MTA Cooperative Group, 1999
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesNone of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“many parents prefer not to use medication as a treatment for their child with ADHD (Pisecco, Huzinec, & Curtis, 2001; Power, Hess, & Bennett, 1995).”
§ The Influences of Environmental Enrichment, Cognitive Enhancement, and Physical Exercise on Brain Development: Can we Alter the Developmental Trajectory of ADHD? > OVERVIEW OF EVIDENCE-BASED TREATMENTS FOR ADHD > Key Limitations of Current Evidence-Based Interventions for ADHD
What the sources say
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In the paper
“Effect-size calculations from both behavioral interventions and stimulant medication studies demonstrate that these interventions result in substantial improvements across domains of functioning (Conners, 2002; Pelham, Jr. et al., 2008).”
§ The Influences of Environmental Enrichment, Cognitive Enhancement, and Physical Exercise on Brain Development: Can we Alter the Developmental Trajectory of ADHD? > OVERVIEW OF EVIDENCE-BASED TREATMENTS FOR ADHD
What the sources say
Strength:boosted· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesNone of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“behavior contingency management in the classroom yields improvements in teacher reports of children’s functioning, observed behavior of children with ADHD in the classroom setting, as well as better academic productivity (Abramowitz, O'Leary, & Rosen, 1987; Fabiano et al., 2007; Pelham, Jr. et al., 1998; Hoffman & DuPaul, 2000).”
§ The Influences of Environmental Enrichment, Cognitive Enhancement, and Physical Exercise on Brain Development: Can we Alter the Developmental Trajectory of ADHD? > OVERVIEW OF EVIDENCE-BASED TREATMENTS FOR ADHD
What the sources say
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesNone of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Recent research has begun to elucidate the underlying neural (Casey et al., 1997; Castellanos, 2001; Makris et al., 2007; Schulz et al., 2004; Schulz, Newcorn, Fan, Tang, & Halperin, 2005a; Seidman, Valera, & Makris, 2005; Shaw et al., 2006; Shaw et al., 2007b; Shaw et al., 2007a) and neurocognitive (Sergeant, Oosterlaan, & van der Meere, 1999; van Mourik, Oosterlaan, & Sergeant, 2005; Willcutt, D”
§ The Influences of Environmental Enrichment, Cognitive Enhancement, and Physical Exercise on Brain Development: Can we Alter the Developmental Trajectory of ADHD? > INTRODUCTION
What the sources say
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesNone of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“relatively few individuals with ADHD receive effective treatment throughout the full course of their disorder (Corkum, Rimer, & Schachar, 1999; Jensen et al., 2007; MTA Cooperative Group, 1999; MTA Cooperative Group, 2004; Perwien, Hall, Swensen, & Swindle, 2004; Sanchez, Crismon, Barner, Bettinger, & Wilson, 2005; Weiss, Gadow, & Wasdell, 2006; Molina et al., 2009)”
§ The Influences of Environmental Enrichment, Cognitive Enhancement, and Physical Exercise on Brain Development: Can we Alter the Developmental Trajectory of ADHD? > INTRODUCTION
What the sources say
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
- It may state two separate claims as one. 43
- Probably not a substantial claim. 32
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These interventions have been shown to ameliorate the core symptoms of ADHD and to improve academic performance across a wide array of school-related measures.”
§ The Influences of Environmental Enrichment, Cognitive Enhancement, and Physical Exercise on Brain Development: Can we Alter the Developmental Trajectory of ADHD? > INTRODUCTION
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“ADHD typically emerges during the preschool years, persists through adolescence and into adulthood for many afflicted individuals, and causes significant functional disability throughout the lifespan (American Psychiatric Association Task Force on DSM-IV, 2000).”
§ The Influences of Environmental Enrichment, Cognitive Enhancement, and Physical Exercise on Brain Development: Can we Alter the Developmental Trajectory of ADHD? > INTRODUCTION
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Pastor & Reuben, 2008
- Not checked yetcites American Psychiatric Association Task Force on DSM-IV, 2000
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Stimulant medication has been shown to improve functioning in children with ADHD, with studies demonstrating improvements in core symptoms of ADHD, compliance, aggression, and academic productivity (Conners, 2002; Greenhill et al., 1999; Spencer et al., 1996).”
§ The Influences of Environmental Enrichment, Cognitive Enhancement, and Physical Exercise on Brain Development: Can we Alter the Developmental Trajectory of ADHD? > OVERVIEW OF EVIDENCE-BASED TREATMENTS FOR ADHD
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Conners, 2002
- Not checked yetcites Greenhill et al., 1999
- Not checked yetcites Spencer et al., 1996 source
Strength:boosted· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The bringing together of these scientific literatures may provide valuable insights for the development of more enduring treatments for ADHD.”
§ The Influences of Environmental Enrichment, Cognitive Enhancement, and Physical Exercise on Brain Development: Can we Alter the Developmental Trajectory of ADHD? > INTRODUCTION
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Given these findings, an alternative approach to ameliorating the difficulties of children with ADHD is indicted.”
§ The Influences of Environmental Enrichment, Cognitive Enhancement, and Physical Exercise on Brain Development: Can we Alter the Developmental Trajectory of ADHD? > OVERVIEW OF EVIDENCE-BASED TREATMENTS FOR ADHD > Key Limitations of Current Evidence-Based Interventions for ADHD
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, although acute benefits of stimulant medication and behavioral interventions are well-documented in the literature, the lack of normalization of functioning for many children following treatment, lack of generalization of treatment effects, difficulties in long-term adherence, and lack of clear improvement in long-term functioning following the use of these interventions are discouraging.”
§ The Influences of Environmental Enrichment, Cognitive Enhancement, and Physical Exercise on Brain Development: Can we Alter the Developmental Trajectory of ADHD? > OVERVIEW OF EVIDENCE-BASED TREATMENTS FOR ADHD > Key Limitations of Current Evidence-Based Interventions for ADHD
Load-bearingStrength:boosted· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Behavioral interventions, in contrast, are more palatable but much more difficult to implement, generally quite costly, and may be less effective than stimulant medications (MTA Cooperative Group, 1999).”
§ The Influences of Environmental Enrichment, Cognitive Enhancement, and Physical Exercise on Brain Development: Can we Alter the Developmental Trajectory of ADHD? > OVERVIEW OF EVIDENCE-BASED TREATMENTS FOR ADHD > Key Limitations of Current Evidence-Based Interventions for ADHD
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites MTA Cooperative Group, 1999
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“although children with ADHD may do significantly better with stimulant medication and/or behavioral interventions relative to baseline, they still appear deviant relative to their peers in key areas of functioning.”
§ The Influences of Environmental Enrichment, Cognitive Enhancement, and Physical Exercise on Brain Development: Can we Alter the Developmental Trajectory of ADHD? > OVERVIEW OF EVIDENCE-BASED TREATMENTS FOR ADHD > Key Limitations of Current Evidence-Based Interventions for ADHD
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This suggests that implementation of behavioral interventions and stimulant medication temporarily suppresses behavioral difficulties and that these difficulties resurface when treatment is no longer active.”
§ The Influences of Environmental Enrichment, Cognitive Enhancement, and Physical Exercise on Brain Development: Can we Alter the Developmental Trajectory of ADHD? > OVERVIEW OF EVIDENCE-BASED TREATMENTS FOR ADHD > Key Limitations of Current Evidence-Based Interventions for ADHD
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Additionally, a distinct scientific literature, largely consisting of research with animals, indicates that an array of neurodevelopmental processes facilitate efficient neurotransmission and are highly responsive to environmental influences.”
§ The Influences of Environmental Enrichment, Cognitive Enhancement, and Physical Exercise on Brain Development: Can we Alter the Developmental Trajectory of ADHD? > INTRODUCTION
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes? Based: unclearIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“because of the relatively modest effect sizes, it was concluded that EF weaknesses are “neither necessary nor sufficient to cause all cases of ADHD.””
§ The Influences of Environmental Enrichment, Cognitive Enhancement, and Physical Exercise on Brain Development: Can we Alter the Developmental Trajectory of ADHD? > NEURAL SUBSTRATES OF ADHD > Neuropsychological Findings
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Willcutt et al., 2005 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedn = 6,703Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The extensive literature indicating neurobiological deficits in ADHD, and the strong body of evidence regarding neural rehabilitation, suggests that research examining the impact of pharmacologic as well as environmental manipulations on neural growth, and lasting cognitive function, could provide a potentially fruitful avenue for novel treatment approaches for this highly impairing and oftentimes”
§ The Influences of Environmental Enrichment, Cognitive Enhancement, and Physical Exercise on Brain Development: Can we Alter the Developmental Trajectory of ADHD? > OVERVIEW OF EVIDENCE-BASED TREATMENTS FOR ADHD > Key Limitations of Current Evidence-Based Interventions for ADHD
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
In the paper
“Additional research from this group (Shaw et al., 2006) found links between cortical thickness and clinical outcome such that ADHD children with worse outcome had “fixed” thinning of the left medial PFC and those with better outcomes had right parietal normalization, which was suggested to represent compensatory cortical change.”
§ The Influences of Environmental Enrichment, Cognitive Enhancement, and Physical Exercise on Brain Development: Can we Alter the Developmental Trajectory of ADHD? > NEURAL SUBSTRATES OF ADHD > Neuroimaging Evidence
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Shaw et al., 2006 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“better clinical outcome was linked to the presence of the DRD4-7-repeat allele (Shaw et al., 2007b), which was associated with thinner right orbitofrontal/inferior prefrontal and posterior parietal cortices.”
§ The Influences of Environmental Enrichment, Cognitive Enhancement, and Physical Exercise on Brain Development: Can we Alter the Developmental Trajectory of ADHD? > NEURAL SUBSTRATES OF ADHD > Neuroimaging Evidence
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Shaw et al., 2007b
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“A recent review focusing on trajectories of brain development (Shaw, Gogtay, & Rapoport, 2010) suggests that remission in ADHD with age may be linked to a normalization of initial delays or deficits in brain networks, whereas ADHD persistence into adolescence may be associated with a lack of normalization and perhaps a more deviant trajectory of brain growth.”
§ The Influences of Environmental Enrichment, Cognitive Enhancement, and Physical Exercise on Brain Development: Can we Alter the Developmental Trajectory of ADHD? > NEURAL SUBSTRATES OF ADHD > Neuroimaging Evidence
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Shaw et al., 2010 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“studies have found reduced caudate nucleus size (Filipek et al., 1997; Hynd et al., 1993), reduced volume in the globus pallidus (Castellanos et al., 1996); and reduced callosal area in ADHD (Baumgardner et al., 1996; Giedd et al., 1994; Hynd et al., 1991; Hill et al., 2003; Hynd et al., 1991; Lyoo et al., 1996; Semrud-Clikeman et al., 1994).”
§ The Influences of Environmental Enrichment, Cognitive Enhancement, and Physical Exercise on Brain Development: Can we Alter the Developmental Trajectory of ADHD? > NEURAL SUBSTRATES OF ADHD > Neuroimaging Evidence
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Filipek et al., 1997 source
- Not checked yetcites Hynd et al., 1993
- Not checked yetcites Castellanos et al., 1996
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Studies most consistently find deficits in inhibitory control (Barkley, 1997; Casey et al., 1997; Durston et al., 2003), regulation of attention (Pennington, Groisser, & Welsh, 1993; Swanson et al., 1991; Halperin et al., 1993; Johnson et al., 2008), working memory (Castellanos et al., 2002b; Martinussen, Hayden, Hogg-Johnson, & Tannock, 2005), planning (Pennington et al., 1993; Barkley, 1997),”
§ The Influences of Environmental Enrichment, Cognitive Enhancement, and Physical Exercise on Brain Development: Can we Alter the Developmental Trajectory of ADHD? > NEURAL SUBSTRATES OF ADHD > Neuropsychological Findings
What the sources say
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“These findings were interpreted as suggesting developmental delays rather than permanent anomalies in ADHD.”
§ The Influences of Environmental Enrichment, Cognitive Enhancement, and Physical Exercise on Brain Development: Can we Alter the Developmental Trajectory of ADHD? > NEURAL SUBSTRATES OF ADHD > Neuroimaging Evidence
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Shaw et al., 2007a
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Two studies (Rubia et al., 2010; Vloet et al., 2010) have reported decreased functional connectivity during active task performance in children with ADHD, which may in part be normalized by treatment with stimulant medication (Rubia et al., 2009).”
§ The Influences of Environmental Enrichment, Cognitive Enhancement, and Physical Exercise on Brain Development: Can we Alter the Developmental Trajectory of ADHD? > NEURAL SUBSTRATES OF ADHD > Neuroimaging Evidence
What the sources say
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“A key review of the structural MRI literature (Seidman et al., 2005) found support for the notion that ADHD is associated with frontostriatal abnormalities. However, an increasing number of studies, demonstrating widespread neural abnormalities affecting other cortical regions and the cerebellum, were highlighted.”
§ The Influences of Environmental Enrichment, Cognitive Enhancement, and Physical Exercise on Brain Development: Can we Alter the Developmental Trajectory of ADHD? > NEURAL SUBSTRATES OF ADHD > Neuroimaging Evidence
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Seidman et al., 2005 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The Default Mode Network (DFN), comprised of the precuneus, posterior cingulate cortex, the medial prefrontal cortex and portions of the parietal cortex (Schilbach, Eickhoff, Rotarska-Jagiela, Fink, & Vogeley, 2008), has been shown to be most active during rest, and to deactivate during active task engagement (Raichle et al., 2001).”
§ The Influences of Environmental Enrichment, Cognitive Enhancement, and Physical Exercise on Brain Development: Can we Alter the Developmental Trajectory of ADHD? > NEURAL SUBSTRATES OF ADHD > Neuroimaging Evidence
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Raichle et al., 2001 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“When comparing ADHD participants to controls, some data suggest, reduced functional activity and connectivity within the DFN during rest (Castellanos et al., 2008; Uddin et al., 2008b), but others report an overactive DFN during quiescence (Tian et al., 2006; Tian et al., 2008).”
§ The Influences of Environmental Enrichment, Cognitive Enhancement, and Physical Exercise on Brain Development: Can we Alter the Developmental Trajectory of ADHD? > NEURAL SUBSTRATES OF ADHD > Neuroimaging Evidence
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Castellanos et al., 2008 source
- Not checked yetcites Uddin et al., 2008b
- Not checked yetcites Tian et al., 2006
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“psychostimulant treatment has been found to improve DFN suppression during active task engagement in youth with ADHD (Peterson et al., 2009), as well as to decrease reaction time variability (Spencer et al., 2009).”
§ The Influences of Environmental Enrichment, Cognitive Enhancement, and Physical Exercise on Brain Development: Can we Alter the Developmental Trajectory of ADHD? > NEURAL SUBSTRATES OF ADHD > Neuroimaging Evidence
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Peterson et al., 2009
- Not checked yetcites Spencer et al., 2009 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These findings suggest greater segregation between networks as well as improved integration within networks with increased age.”
§ The Influences of Environmental Enrichment, Cognitive Enhancement, and Physical Exercise on Brain Development: Can we Alter the Developmental Trajectory of ADHD? > NEURODEVELOPMENTAL PERSPECTIVES ON ADHD
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This hypothesized developmentally-related compensation for earlier deficits may also be related to changes in functional connectivity in the brain that occurs over development.”
§ The Influences of Environmental Enrichment, Cognitive Enhancement, and Physical Exercise on Brain Development: Can we Alter the Developmental Trajectory of ADHD? > NEURODEVELOPMENTAL PERSPECTIVES ON ADHD
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“This hypothesis is consistent with data suggesting that trajectories of cortical development throughout middle childhood might be closely linked to ADHD outcomes (Shaw et al., 2006; Shaw et al., 2007b), and that lower reaction time variability is associated with increased activation of the prefrontal circuit (prefrontal cortex and caudate) in children with ADHD (Suskauer et al., 2008).”
§ The Influences of Environmental Enrichment, Cognitive Enhancement, and Physical Exercise on Brain Development: Can we Alter the Developmental Trajectory of ADHD? > NEURODEVELOPMENTAL PERSPECTIVES ON ADHD
What the sources say
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“they posited that the reduction of symptoms oftentimes seen over development are at least partially accounted for by the degree to which prefrontally-mediated EFs and other higher cortical functions, which emerge throughout childhood and adolescence, can compensate for these more primary and enduring subcortical deficits.”
§ The Influences of Environmental Enrichment, Cognitive Enhancement, and Physical Exercise on Brain Development: Can we Alter the Developmental Trajectory of ADHD? > NEURODEVELOPMENTAL PERSPECTIVES ON ADHD
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Halperin et al., 2006 source
- Not checked yetcites Halperin et al., 2008
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Dosenbach et al. (Dosenbach et al., 2007) described two distinct “top-down” functional control networks in adults; a frontoparietal network involved in adaptive online task control and a cinguloopercular network involved in more stable set control.”
§ The Influences of Environmental Enrichment, Cognitive Enhancement, and Physical Exercise on Brain Development: Can we Alter the Developmental Trajectory of ADHD? > NEURODEVELOPMENTAL PERSPECTIVES ON ADHD
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Dosenbach et al., 2007 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“More recently, it has been proposed that there may be multiple causal pathways that contribute to the emergence of ADHD in early childhood (Nigg, Willcutt, Doyle, & Sonuga-Barke, 2005; Sonuga-Barke, 2002).”
§ The Influences of Environmental Enrichment, Cognitive Enhancement, and Physical Exercise on Brain Development: Can we Alter the Developmental Trajectory of ADHD? > NEURODEVELOPMENTAL PERSPECTIVES ON ADHD
What the sources say
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“As posited by Posner and colleagues, the alerting network is driven largely by noradrenergic input from the locus coeruleus to the frontal and parietal lobes, whereas conflict resolution is more closely linked to a dopaminergic system involving the basal ganglia, anterior cingulate and the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (Posner et al., 1990; Posner, Sheese, Odludas, & Tang, 2006).”
§ The Influences of Environmental Enrichment, Cognitive Enhancement, and Physical Exercise on Brain Development: Can we Alter the Developmental Trajectory of ADHD? > NEURAL SUBSTRATES OF ADHD > Neuropsychological Findings
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Posner et al., 1990 source
- Not checked yetcites Posner et al., 2006
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Further, studies examining cortical thickness provide compelling evidence that careful examination of developmental trajectories may be key to uncovering the neural substrates of ADHD, and that clinical outcomes might be linked to cortical development and compensatory mechanisms that develop throughout childhood.”
§ The Influences of Environmental Enrichment, Cognitive Enhancement, and Physical Exercise on Brain Development: Can we Alter the Developmental Trajectory of ADHD? > NEURAL SUBSTRATES OF ADHD > Neuropsychological Findings
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“This latter finding was interpreted as prefrontal compensation for a more primary motor deficiency.”
§ The Influences of Environmental Enrichment, Cognitive Enhancement, and Physical Exercise on Brain Development: Can we Alter the Developmental Trajectory of ADHD? > NEURODEVELOPMENTAL PERSPECTIVES ON ADHD
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Suskauer et al., 2008 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“they hypothesized that ADHD is caused by non-cortical neural dysfunction that is present early in ontogeny and remains relatively static throughout life.”
§ The Influences of Environmental Enrichment, Cognitive Enhancement, and Physical Exercise on Brain Development: Can we Alter the Developmental Trajectory of ADHD? > NEURODEVELOPMENTAL PERSPECTIVES ON ADHD
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Halperin et al., 2006 source
- Not checked yetcites Halperin et al., 2008
Tests✗ Asserted: fails✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is possible that these developmental processes that support the maturation of this dual-network control system play a critical role in the hypothesized compensation for earlier deficits in youth with ADHD.”
§ The Influences of Environmental Enrichment, Cognitive Enhancement, and Physical Exercise on Brain Development: Can we Alter the Developmental Trajectory of ADHD? > NEURODEVELOPMENTAL PERSPECTIVES ON ADHD
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, little consideration has been afforded to pathways out of ADHD or the mechanisms by which the severity of the disorder diminishes over time, which could serve as the conceptual basis for the development of novel, perhaps enduring, interventions.”
§ The Influences of Environmental Enrichment, Cognitive Enhancement, and Physical Exercise on Brain Development: Can we Alter the Developmental Trajectory of ADHD? > NEURODEVELOPMENTAL PERSPECTIVES ON ADHD
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In this regard, the disorder is never really “cured” or “out-grown.””
§ The Influences of Environmental Enrichment, Cognitive Enhancement, and Physical Exercise on Brain Development: Can we Alter the Developmental Trajectory of ADHD? > NEURODEVELOPMENTAL PERSPECTIVES ON ADHD
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Epstein and colleagues (Epstein et al., 2003) reported variability in d’, lnβ, and RT to be strongly associated across multiple ADHD symptom domains.”
§ The Influences of Environmental Enrichment, Cognitive Enhancement, and Physical Exercise on Brain Development: Can we Alter the Developmental Trajectory of ADHD? > NEURAL SUBSTRATES OF ADHD > Neuropsychological Findings
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Epstein et al., 2003 source
Strength:boosted· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“A recent study (Rommelse et al., 2007) reported that after controlling for “lower order” cognitive processes, there was little evidence for primary EF deficits in children with ADHD.”
§ The Influences of Environmental Enrichment, Cognitive Enhancement, and Physical Exercise on Brain Development: Can we Alter the Developmental Trajectory of ADHD? > NEURAL SUBSTRATES OF ADHD > Neuropsychological Findings
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Rommelse et al., 2007 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Kuntsi and colleagues (Kuntsi et al., 2001) reported that RT variability discriminated ADHD children from controls better than measures of inhibition and working memory”
§ The Influences of Environmental Enrichment, Cognitive Enhancement, and Physical Exercise on Brain Development: Can we Alter the Developmental Trajectory of ADHD? > NEURAL SUBSTRATES OF ADHD > Neuropsychological Findings
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Kuntsi et al., 2001 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Halperin and colleagues (Halperin et al., 2006; Halperin, Marks, & Schulz, 2008) have posited distinct neurocognitive mechanisms for the etiology of and relative recovery from ADHD.”
§ The Influences of Environmental Enrichment, Cognitive Enhancement, and Physical Exercise on Brain Development: Can we Alter the Developmental Trajectory of ADHD? > NEURODEVELOPMENTAL PERSPECTIVES ON ADHD
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Halperin et al., 2006 source
- Not checked yetcites Halperin et al., 2008
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“In a multisite clinical trial (Klingberg et al., 2005), beneficial effects of Cogmed were reported in school-aged children with ADHD. Significant intervention effects were found on measures of visual (Span board) and verbal (Digit Span from the WISC-III) working memory, nonverbal complex reasoning (Raven’s Progressive Matrices), and response inhibition (Stroop task), compared to the low-level”
§ The Influences of Environmental Enrichment, Cognitive Enhancement, and Physical Exercise on Brain Development: Can we Alter the Developmental Trajectory of ADHD? > COGNITIVE TRAINING PARADIGMS IN CHILDREN WITH ADHD
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Klingberg et al., 2005 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Specifically, treadmill exercises in rats increase cell proliferation via insulin-like growth factor-1 (Trejo et al., 2001) and cell proliferation and survival in the dentate gyrus (van Praag, Kempermann, & Gage, 1999b).”
§ The Influences of Environmental Enrichment, Cognitive Enhancement, and Physical Exercise on Brain Development: Can we Alter the Developmental Trajectory of ADHD? > NEURAL DEVELOPMENT > Environmental Influences on Neurodevelopment
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Trejo et al., 2001 source
- Not checked yetcites van Praag, Kempermann, & Gage, 1999b
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Perhaps more relevant to the current thesis, chronic exercise blunted the developmental rise of blood pressure while increasing glutamic acid decarboxylase mRNA in the caudal hypothalamus in spontaneously hypertensive rats, which are commonly used as an animal model for ADHD (Little, Kramer, Beatty, & Waldrop, 2001).”
§ The Influences of Environmental Enrichment, Cognitive Enhancement, and Physical Exercise on Brain Development: Can we Alter the Developmental Trajectory of ADHD? > NEURAL DEVELOPMENT > Environmental Influences on Neurodevelopment
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Little, Kramer, Beatty, & Waldrop, 2001
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Epidemiologic data provide a compelling link between increased participation in intellectual and social activities in daily life and a slower cognitive decline in the elderly (Scarmeas & Stern, 2004).”
§ The Influences of Environmental Enrichment, Cognitive Enhancement, and Physical Exercise on Brain Development: Can we Alter the Developmental Trajectory of ADHD? > NEURAL DEVELOPMENT > Environmental Influences on Neurodevelopment
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Scarmeas & Stern, 2004
Strength:boosted· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Collectively these studies have shown that cognitive interventions for children with ADHD improve working memory, inhibition, attention, and nonverbal reasoning ability, and may reduce behavioral symptoms of ADHD as reported by parents and/or teachers (Kerns et al., 1999; Klingberg et al., 2005; Shalev et al., 2007).”
§ The Influences of Environmental Enrichment, Cognitive Enhancement, and Physical Exercise on Brain Development: Can we Alter the Developmental Trajectory of ADHD? > COGNITIVE TRAINING PARADIGMS IN CHILDREN WITH ADHD
What the sources say
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“One study that examined BDNF levels in children with ADHD reported that as compared to controls, those with ADHD had increased levels of BDNF, and that BDNF levels correlated with neuropsychological performance as indicated by number of errors on a continuous performance test (Shim et al., 2008).”
§ The Influences of Environmental Enrichment, Cognitive Enhancement, and Physical Exercise on Brain Development: Can we Alter the Developmental Trajectory of ADHD? > NEURAL DEVELOPMENT > Environmental Influences on Neurodevelopment
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Shim et al., 2008
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, there is no longer doubt that brain development is highly responsive to increased levels of physical activity/exercise as well as environmental enrichment.”
§ The Influences of Environmental Enrichment, Cognitive Enhancement, and Physical Exercise on Brain Development: Can we Alter the Developmental Trajectory of ADHD? > NEURAL DEVELOPMENT > Environmental Influences on Neurodevelopment
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Physical exercise increases levels of synaptic proteins (Vaynman, Ying, Yin, & Gomez-Pinilla, 2006), glutamate receptors (Farmer et al., 2004) and the availability of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) (Berchtold, Chinn, Chou, Kesslak, & Cotman, 2005) and insulin-like growth factor-1 (Trejo, Carro, & Torres-Aleman, 2001), all of which can enhance neural plasticity.”
§ The Influences of Environmental Enrichment, Cognitive Enhancement, and Physical Exercise on Brain Development: Can we Alter the Developmental Trajectory of ADHD? > NEURAL DEVELOPMENT > Environmental Influences on Neurodevelopment
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Vaynman, Ying, Yin, & Gomez-Pinilla, 2006
- Not checked yetcites Farmer et al., 2004
- Not checked yetcites Berchtold, Chinn, Chou, Kesslak, & Cotman, 2005 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The focus on a specific cognitive domain is problematic because ADHD is a heterogeneous disorder, with most children experiencing impairments in multiple cognitive domains and only a portion have deficits in any single domain (Nigg et al., 2005).”
§ The Influences of Environmental Enrichment, Cognitive Enhancement, and Physical Exercise on Brain Development: Can we Alter the Developmental Trajectory of ADHD? > COGNITIVE TRAINING PARADIGMS IN CHILDREN WITH ADHD
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Nigg et al., 2005 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Furthermore, in adults, cognitive training increases cortical brain activity (Olesen, Westerberg, & Klingberg, 2004) and alters dopamine D1 receptor binding in both the prefrontal and parietal cortices (McNab et al., 2009).”
§ The Influences of Environmental Enrichment, Cognitive Enhancement, and Physical Exercise on Brain Development: Can we Alter the Developmental Trajectory of ADHD? > NEURAL DEVELOPMENT > Environmental Influences on Neurodevelopment
What the sources say
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Data suggest that both exercise and environmental enhancement contribute to positive neurodevelopmental outcomes, although not necessarily in an identical manner.”
§ The Influences of Environmental Enrichment, Cognitive Enhancement, and Physical Exercise on Brain Development: Can we Alter the Developmental Trajectory of ADHD? > NEURAL DEVELOPMENT > Environmental Influences on Neurodevelopment
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Furthermore, cognitive exercises show promise as effective interventions for slowing the trajectory of cognitive and functional decline that is associated with dementia (Gates & Valenzuela, 2010).”
§ The Influences of Environmental Enrichment, Cognitive Enhancement, and Physical Exercise on Brain Development: Can we Alter the Developmental Trajectory of ADHD? > NEURAL DEVELOPMENT > Environmental Influences on Neurodevelopment
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Gates & Valenzuela, 2010
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“With regard to cognitive enhancement, Rueda et al. (Rueda, Rothbart, McCandliss, Saccomanno, & Posner, 2005) showed that attention training in preschool children yielded changes in executive functioning and parallel alterations in event related responses (ERPs) reflecting patterns typical of older individuals.”
§ The Influences of Environmental Enrichment, Cognitive Enhancement, and Physical Exercise on Brain Development: Can we Alter the Developmental Trajectory of ADHD? > NEURAL DEVELOPMENT > Environmental Influences on Neurodevelopment
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Rueda, Rothbart, McCandliss, Saccomanno, & Posner, 2005
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“These neural changes in response to physical exercise are accompanied by behavioral changes such that physical exercise enhances spatial learning (Fordyce & Farrar, 1991; Fordyce & Wehner, 1993) and passive avoidance memory (Samorajski et al., 1985).”
§ The Influences of Environmental Enrichment, Cognitive Enhancement, and Physical Exercise on Brain Development: Can we Alter the Developmental Trajectory of ADHD? > NEURAL DEVELOPMENT > Environmental Influences on Neurodevelopment
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Fordyce & Farrar, 1991
- Not checked yetcites Fordyce & Wehner, 1993
- Not checked yetcites Samorajski et al., 1985
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Finally, “chronic play therapy” reduced right frontal lesion-induced hyperactivity in juvenile rats, and enhanced access to rough-and-tumble play in normal animals improved performance on indices of behavioral inhibition (Panksepp, Burgdorf, Turner, & Gordon, 2003).”
§ The Influences of Environmental Enrichment, Cognitive Enhancement, and Physical Exercise on Brain Development: Can we Alter the Developmental Trajectory of ADHD? > FUTURE DIRECTIONS FOR NEUROCOGNITIVELY-BASED TREATMENTS OF ADHD
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Panksepp, Burgdorf, Turner, & Gordon, 2003
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Manipulations involving problem solving and coordination increase synapse formation in the cerebellar cortex (Kleim, Vij, Ballard, & Greenough, 1997; Kleim et al., 1998), whereas repetitive physical exercise increases cerebellar blood vessel density (Black, Isaacs, Anderson, Alcantara, & Greenough, 1990).”
§ The Influences of Environmental Enrichment, Cognitive Enhancement, and Physical Exercise on Brain Development: Can we Alter the Developmental Trajectory of ADHD? > NEURAL DEVELOPMENT > Environmental Influences on Neurodevelopment
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Kleim, Vij, Ballard, & Greenough, 1997
- Not checked yetcites Kleim et al., 1998
- Not checked yetcites Black, Isaacs, Anderson, Alcantara, & Greenough, 1990 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Physical exercise has also been reported to increase BDNF levels (Ferris, Williams, & Shen, 2007; Gold et al., 2003; Rasmussen et al., 2009; Seifert et al., 2010; Strohle et al., 2010; Tang, Chu, Hui, Helmeste, & Law, 2008; Zoladz et al., 2008), enhance cognitive performance (Baker et al., 2010; Ferris et al., 2007; Laurin, Verreault, Lindsay, MacPherson, & Rockwood, 2001), and to promote brain”
§ The Influences of Environmental Enrichment, Cognitive Enhancement, and Physical Exercise on Brain Development: Can we Alter the Developmental Trajectory of ADHD? > NEURAL DEVELOPMENT > Environmental Influences on Neurodevelopment
What the sources say
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“These data suggest that cognitive and social stimulation, as well as physical exercise, may delay the onset of dementia and other neurodegenerative diseases (Scarmeas & Stern, 2004; Ravaglia et al., 2008; Kramer & Erickson, 2007; Arkin, 2007; Rolland et al., 2007).”
§ The Influences of Environmental Enrichment, Cognitive Enhancement, and Physical Exercise on Brain Development: Can we Alter the Developmental Trajectory of ADHD? > NEURAL DEVELOPMENT > Environmental Influences on Neurodevelopment
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Scarmeas & Stern, 2004
- Not checked yetcites Ravaglia et al., 2008
- Not checked yetcites Kramer & Erickson, 2007 source
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Results of this randomized trial demonstrated that preschool children in Tools-based classrooms significantly improved performance on experimental measures of inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility. Behavioral changes were not assessed in this study.”
§ The Influences of Environmental Enrichment, Cognitive Enhancement, and Physical Exercise on Brain Development: Can we Alter the Developmental Trajectory of ADHD? > COGNITIVE TRAINING PARADIGMS IN CHILDREN WITH ADHD > Cognitive Enhancement in the Child’s Social Milieu
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Diamond, Barnett, Thomas, & Munro, 2007 source
Strength:boosted· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Early childhood is the period of greatest neural plasticity.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Nevertheless, brain development is non-linear, and progresses in a localized and region-specific manner that coincides with functional maturation (Huttenlocher & Dabholkar, 1997; Keshavan, Anderson, & Pettegrew, 1994).”
§ The Influences of Environmental Enrichment, Cognitive Enhancement, and Physical Exercise on Brain Development: Can we Alter the Developmental Trajectory of ADHD? > NEURAL DEVELOPMENT
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Huttenlocher & Dabholkar, 1997
- Not checked yetcites Keshavan, Anderson, & Pettegrew, 1994
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“This intervention is relevant to ADHD given the noted difficulties that many children with ADHD have with EFs (Doyle, 2006; Willcutt et al., 2005) and the notion that improved EF over development should reduce the severity of ADHD symptoms and impairments (Halperin and Schulz, 2006).”
§ The Influences of Environmental Enrichment, Cognitive Enhancement, and Physical Exercise on Brain Development: Can we Alter the Developmental Trajectory of ADHD? > COGNITIVE TRAINING PARADIGMS IN CHILDREN WITH ADHD > Cognitive Enhancement in the Child’s Social Milieu
What the sources say
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In addition, physically and cognitively demanding play within a social context can be used to mold and develop social skills and, when structured in the appropriate manner, can potentially enhance cognitive and behavioral development, and neural growth.”
§ The Influences of Environmental Enrichment, Cognitive Enhancement, and Physical Exercise on Brain Development: Can we Alter the Developmental Trajectory of ADHD? > FUTURE DIRECTIONS FOR NEUROCOGNITIVELY-BASED TREATMENTS OF ADHD
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Rather, it would facilitate development and growth of a wide array of cortical regions and their associated functions, which in turn, would allow for the implementation of compensatory mechanisms that have the potential to improve functioning in individuals with the disorder.”
§ The Influences of Environmental Enrichment, Cognitive Enhancement, and Physical Exercise on Brain Development: Can we Alter the Developmental Trajectory of ADHD? > FUTURE DIRECTIONS FOR NEUROCOGNITIVELY-BASED TREATMENTS OF ADHD
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In addition, physically and cognitively demanding play within a social context can be used to mold and develop social skills and, when structured in the appropriate manner, can potentially enhance cognitive and behavioral development, and neural growth.”
§ The Influences of Environmental Enrichment, Cognitive Enhancement, and Physical Exercise on Brain Development: Can we Alter the Developmental Trajectory of ADHD? > FUTURE DIRECTIONS FOR NEUROCOGNITIVELY-BASED TREATMENTS OF ADHD
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As compared to other more effortful and less palatable interventions, compliance may be less of a problem with such an intervention.”
§ The Influences of Environmental Enrichment, Cognitive Enhancement, and Physical Exercise on Brain Development: Can we Alter the Developmental Trajectory of ADHD? > FUTURE DIRECTIONS FOR NEUROCOGNITIVELY-BASED TREATMENTS OF ADHD
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“In addition, beyond directed play and exercises with parents, it is possible that engaging children in sports, nature (Kuo & Taylor, 2004), and other group-based cognitively and physically challenging activities may provide an avenue for neural and cognitive growth that would serve to facilitate the diminution of ADHD severity across development.”
§ The Influences of Environmental Enrichment, Cognitive Enhancement, and Physical Exercise on Brain Development: Can we Alter the Developmental Trajectory of ADHD? > FUTURE DIRECTIONS FOR NEUROCOGNITIVELY-BASED TREATMENTS OF ADHD
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Kuo & Taylor, 2004
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“There are numerous common children’s games, activities and exercises that would be easy for families to play together and involve the use of wide ranging brain areas, targeting the diffuse neurocognitive deficits that have been associated with ADHD.”
§ The Influences of Environmental Enrichment, Cognitive Enhancement, and Physical Exercise on Brain Development: Can we Alter the Developmental Trajectory of ADHD? > FUTURE DIRECTIONS FOR NEUROCOGNITIVELY-BASED TREATMENTS OF ADHD
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: ADHD is associated with diffuse neurocognitive deficits.
- Rests on an assumption: Common children's games engage specific neurocognitive functions such as inhibitory control, working memory, and motor control.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In particular, the intrinsic rewarding qualities of play (i.e., it’s fun) makes it an ideal delivery system for treatment of children with ADHD, who are known to be highly responsive to continuously rewarding contingencies; yet highly resistant to more effortful and less rewarding (i.e., less fun) tasks.”
§ The Influences of Environmental Enrichment, Cognitive Enhancement, and Physical Exercise on Brain Development: Can we Alter the Developmental Trajectory of ADHD? > FUTURE DIRECTIONS FOR NEUROCOGNITIVELY-BASED TREATMENTS OF ADHD
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
- Rests on an assumption: Children with ADHD are highly responsive to continuously rewarding contingencies.
- Rests on an assumption: Children with ADHD are highly resistant to effortful and less rewarding tasks.
- Rests on an assumption: Play is intrinsically rewarding or fun.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus the creative use of directed play, which incorporates cognitive challenges and physical exercise, may have the potential to serve as a vehicle for treatment of children with ADHD.”
§ The Influences of Environmental Enrichment, Cognitive Enhancement, and Physical Exercise on Brain Development: Can we Alter the Developmental Trajectory of ADHD? > FUTURE DIRECTIONS FOR NEUROCOGNITIVELY-BASED TREATMENTS OF ADHD
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
The paper relies on this without support.
Continued treatment for ADHD throughout the lifetime is costly and problematic for logistical reasons.
“The need for continued treatment throughout the lifetime is both costly and problematic for a number of logistical reasons.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Findings from animal research on environmental enrichment and neurodevelopmental processes generalize to humans with ADHD.
“a distinct scientific literature, largely consisting of research with animals, indicates that an array of neurodevelopmental processes facilitate efficient neurotransmission and are highly responsive to environmental influences.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Findings from animal models of neurodevelopment and neurodevelopmental disorders generalize to humans, particularly children with ADHD.
“Thus, literature in children is sparse, but the extensive body of animal research suggests that environmental enrichment and early brain rehabilitation could play a key role in the treatment, and possibly even the amelioration, of ADHD symptomatology through improving the core neural deficits associated with the disorder.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Early childhood is the period of greatest neural plasticity.
“Although early childhood is the period of greatest neural plasticity, and the most prominent cell proliferation in response to exercise has been shown to occur at younger ages in rats (Kim et al., 2004), far less research has been conducted with children.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Children with ADHD are highly responsive to continuously rewarding contingencies.
“who are known to be highly responsive to continuously rewarding contingencies; yet highly resistant to more effortful and less rewarding (i.e., less fun) tasks.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Children with ADHD are highly resistant to effortful and less rewarding tasks.
“who are known to be highly responsive to continuously rewarding contingencies; yet highly resistant to more effortful and less rewarding (i.e., less fun) tasks.”
The paper relies on this without support.
ADHD is associated with diffuse neurocognitive deficits.
“targeting the diffuse neurocognitive deficits that have been associated with ADHD.”
The paper relies on this without support.
ADHD is caused by a core neural pathology.
“the core neural pathology that causes ADHD.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Play is intrinsically rewarding or fun.
“the intrinsic rewarding qualities of play (i.e., it’s fun)”
The paper relies on this without support.
Common children's games engage specific neurocognitive functions such as inhibitory control, working memory, and motor control.
“For example, the game “S]imon-says” involves inhibitory control, “my grandmother went to the market” involves working memory, and “hopscotch” involves physical exercise and requires motor control.”
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“these treatment approaches have not been shown to have long-term benefits, and both practical and theoretical issues limit their utility and potency.”
From Improving Outcomes for Youth with ADHD: A Conceptual Framework for Combined Neurocognitive and Skill-Based Treatment Approaches (2014) · cites this paper as Halperin & Healey, 2011
In the citing paper
“Current evidence-based treatments are not theoretically derived to address the underlying pathophysiology of, or compensatory mechanisms associated with recovery from ADHD.”
From Improving Outcomes for Youth with ADHD: A Conceptual Framework for Combined Neurocognitive and Skill-Based Treatment Approaches (2014) · cites this paper as Halperin and Healey, 2011
In the citing paper
“A wealth of animal studies indicates that environmental enhancement has effects on brain development across the lifespan (Halperin and Healey, 2011).”
From Positive parenting predicts the development of adolescent brain structure: a longitudinal study (2014) · cites this paper as Halperin and Healey, 2011
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Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
A mouse study is described as a rat study
MinorThe text attributes the cited dentate-gyrus finding to experiments in rats, but its reference identifies the subjects as adult mice.
“Specifically, treadmill exercises in rats increase cell proliferation via insulin-like growth factor-1 (Trejo et al., 2001) and cell proliferation and survival in the dentate gyrus (van Praag, Kempermann, & Gage, 1999b).”
“257. van Praag H Kempermann G Gage FH Running increases cell proliferation and neurogenesis in the adult mouse dentate gyrus Nat Neurosci 1999b 2 266 270 10195220 10.1038/6368”
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Metadata
- Authors
- Halperin, J. M., & Healey, D. M.
- Affiliations
- Queens College, CUNY (US)
- University of Otago (NZ)
- Corresponding author
- Halperin, Jeffrey M.
- ORCID
- Halperin, Jeffrey M.
- Venue
- Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2011-01
- Volume
- 35
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 621-634
- ISSN
- 0149-7634 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC3008505
- OpenAlex
- W1989027174
- Semantic Scholar
- bbb85d7be5c6a8d10df9f9b43e790f9b61f5a0fa
- Cited by
- 237
- References
- 262
- Citations by year
- 2026: 11 · 2025: 13 · 2024: 8 · 2023: 9 · 2022: 9 · 2021: 17 · 2020: 12 · 2019: 17 · 2018: 14 · 2017: 12 · 2016: 17 · 2015: 18 · 2014: 27 · 2013: 16 · 2012: 23
- FWCI
- 2.32
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (R21MH085898, R01 MH068286)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Autism Spectrum Disorder Research
- Keywords
- attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, environmental enrichment, cognitive enhancement, physical activity, brain development, developmental trajectories
- MeSH terms
- Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity, Brain, Environment, Humans, Exercise, Nootropic Agents
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