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Cited by 477Neural and Behavioral Psychology StudiesHistorical and Modern Theater StudiesNeurobiology of Language and Bilingualism

Meta‐analysis of neuroimaging studies of the Wisconsin Card‐Sorting task and component processes

Open access
Buchsbaum, Bradley R., Greer, Stephanie, Chang, Wei‐Li, Berman, Karen Faith·2005·Human Brain Mapping
DOI 10.1002/hbm.20128PMC PMC6871753
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Abstract

A quantitative meta‐analysis using the activation likelihood estimation (ALE) method was used to investigate the brain basis of the Wisconsin Card‐Sorting Task (WCST) and two hypothesized component processes, task switching and response suppression. All three meta‐analyses revealed distributed frontoparietal activation patterns consistent with the status of the WCST as an attention‐demanding executive task. The WCST was associated with extensive bilateral clusters of reliable cross‐study activity in the lateral prefrontal cortex, anterior cingulate cortex, and inferior parietal lobule. Task switching revealed a similar, although less robust, frontoparietal pattern with additional clusters of activity in the opercular region of the ventral prefrontal cortex, bilaterally. Response‐suppression tasks, represented by studies of the go/no‐go paradigm, showed a large and highly right‐lateralized region of activity in the right prefrontal cortex. The activation patterns are interpreted as reflecting a neural fractionation of the cognitive components that must be integrated during the performance of the WCST. Hum Brain Mapp 25:35–45, 2005. © 2005 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This paper quantitatively meta-analyzed neuroimaging coordinates to compare the Wisconsin Card-Sorting Task (WCST) with two hypothesized components: task switching and response suppression. It found shared frontoparietal executive patterns across tasks, but also task-specific emphases in ventral prefrontal cortex for switching and right prefrontal cortex for go/no-go.

Key findings

  • The WCST meta-analysis (13 studies, 278 coordinates) produced extensive bilateral frontoparietal activity, including lateral prefrontal cortex, anterior cingulate/medial frontal cortex, and inferior parietal lobule; prominent clusters included right inferior parietal lobule (12,995 mm³), left inferior frontal gyrus (11,664 mm³), left inferior parietal lobule/precuneus (10,901 mm³), and right inferior frontal gyrus (9,334 mm³).
  • Task switching (18 studies, 231 coordinates) showed a similar but less robust frontoparietal pattern, plus bilateral opercular inferior frontal gyrus (BA47) clusters that were not prominent in the WCST map; its largest cluster was left inferior frontal gyrus (14,048 mm³).
  • Go/no-go response suppression (18 studies, 224 coordinates) showed fewer significant clusters and marked right lateralization: 9 of 13 clusters were in the right hemisphere, and the right middle/inferior frontal cluster (13,427 mm³) was more than 30 times larger than a comparable left inferior frontal cluster (388 mm³).
  • Conjunction analyses showed overlap across tasks in dorsolateral/dorsomedial frontal and parietal regions, with task-specific additions such as ventral prefrontal involvement for switching and right dorsolateral prefrontal involvement for go/no-go.

Methods

  • The authors searched PubMed and Web of Science and included only studies of normal controls that reported activation foci as 3D stereotactic coordinates. WCST inclusion was broad for recognizable task versions; task switching required a switch-repeat contrast; go/no-go used no-go > go or no-go > rest contrasts.
  • Activation likelihood estimation (ALE) was implemented in R. Foci were modeled with a 3D Gaussian point-spread function (FWHM = 15 mm), maps were thresholded at P < 0.001 with a minimum cluster volume of 100 mm³, and conjunctions were computed as voxelwise intersections of the individual ALE maps.
  • The meta-analytic samples comprised 13 WCST studies with 278 coordinates, 18 task-switching studies with 231 coordinates, and 18 go/no-go studies with 224 coordinates.

Limitations

  • The authors state that formal confirmation of differences between the ALE maps would require direct statistical comparisons, which were only beginning to be developed at the time.
  • The authors acknowledge that lenient inclusion criteria for the WCST limit the specificity of inferences drawn from that meta-analysis.
  • Evident from the text: working memory was recognized as important to the WCST but was not meta-analyzed, and the coordinate-based approach depends on previously published foci rather than direct within-study contrasts.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1002/hbm.20128

Cites

84 of 84 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 22 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingnone given

    The ventrolateral prefrontal cortex closely matches the activation foci found in the task-switching meta-analysis.

    “much attention has been focused on the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex, an area corresponding closely to the activation foci seen in the task-switching metaanalysis.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    In addition to common areas of activation in the dorsal prefrontal cortex, task switching was associated with bilateral foci in the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex.

    “As is clear in Figure 1 and 3 (red colors), in addition to the common areas of activation in the dorsal prefrontal cortex, task switching was associated with bilateral foci in the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The ALE method assumes that for each study there is a given spatial distribution of activity and an associated set of maximal coordinates.
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Across-study heterogeneity in experimental setup and manipulations does not substantially affect the aggregate ALE picture.
    • The authors state this as an assumption: If the null hypothesis is true, each set of coordinates may reasonably be assumed to have come about by way of some random spatial process.
  • Findingown data

    Task switching was associated with a similar but less diffuse bilateral frontoparietal pattern of activation.

    “Task switching was also associated with a similar although less diffuse bilateral frontoparietal pattern of activation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The ALE method assumes that for each study there is a given spatial distribution of activity and an associated set of maximal coordinates.
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Across-study heterogeneity in experimental setup and manipulations does not substantially affect the aggregate ALE picture.
    • The authors state this as an assumption: If the null hypothesis is true, each set of coordinates may reasonably be assumed to have come about by way of some random spatial process.
  • Findingown data

    The go/no-go meta-analysis showed a large, highly right-lateralized region of activity in the right prefrontal cortex.

    “Response-suppression tasks, represented by studies of the go/no-go paradigm, showed a large and highly right-lateralized region of activity in the right prefrontal cortex.”
    • Also stated in: § Go/No-Go Meta-Analysis Results · plain
      “The most prominent feature of the activation pattern was the highly lateralized cluster of activity in the right frontal cortex, which included a large portion (5,004 mm 3 ) of the posterior part of the IFG (BA44/45) and the middle frontal gyrus (BA9/46).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The ALE method assumes that for each study there is a given spatial distribution of activity and an associated set of maximal coordinates.
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Across-study heterogeneity in experimental setup and manipulations does not substantially affect the aggregate ALE picture.
    • The authors state this as an assumption: If the null hypothesis is true, each set of coordinates may reasonably be assumed to have come about by way of some random spatial process.
  • Findingown data

    All three meta-analyses revealed distributed frontoparietal activation patterns.

    “All three meta-analyses revealed distributed frontoparietal activation patterns consistent with the status of the WCST as an attention-demanding executive task.”
    • Also stated in: § Meta-Analysis Conjunction Results · plain
      “In general, all ALE maps showed a distributed frontoparietal activation pattern with foci in both the dorsolateral and dorsomedial portions of the frontal cortex.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The ALE method assumes that for each study there is a given spatial distribution of activity and an associated set of maximal coordinates.
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Across-study heterogeneity in experimental setup and manipulations does not substantially affect the aggregate ALE picture.
    • The authors state this as an assumption: If the null hypothesis is true, each set of coordinates may reasonably be assumed to have come about by way of some random spatial process.
  • May combine two claims. 18
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 20

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In the go/no-go analysis, 9 of 13 significant clusters were in the right hemisphere, and the three largest were on the right.

    “Among the significant clusters of activity, 9 of 13 were observed in the right hemisphere, and the three largest of these were all observed on the right.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The ALE method assumes that for each study there is a given spatial distribution of activity and an associated set of maximal coordinates.
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Across-study heterogeneity in experimental setup and manipulations does not substantially affect the aggregate ALE picture.
    • The authors state this as an assumption: If the null hypothesis is true, each set of coordinates may reasonably be assumed to have come about by way of some random spatial process.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The WCST meta-analysis included 13 studies with 278 coordinates; the task-switching meta-analysis included 18 studies with 231 coordinates; the go/no-go meta-analysis included 18 studies with 224 coordinates.

    “Entering into the WCST meta-analysis were 13 studies with a total of 278 coordinates, 18 studies and 231 coordinates for task switching, and 18 studies and 224 coordinates for go/no-go.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    A bilateral focus in the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (IFG, BA47) was reliably active across task-switching studies and was not present in the WCST map.

    “In addition, a bilateral focus, which was not present in the WCST map, located in the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (IFG, BA47) was reliably active across studies of task switching.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The ALE method assumes that for each study there is a given spatial distribution of activity and an associated set of maximal coordinates.
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Across-study heterogeneity in experimental setup and manipulations does not substantially affect the aggregate ALE picture.
    • The authors state this as an assumption: If the null hypothesis is true, each set of coordinates may reasonably be assumed to have come about by way of some random spatial process.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The task-switching meta-analysis revealed a frontoparietal activation pattern similar to the WCST but less robust, with additional bilateral clusters in the opercular region of the ventral prefrontal cortex.

    “Task switching revealed a similar, although less robust, frontoparietal pattern with additional clusters of activity in the opercular region of the ventral prefrontal cortex, bilaterally.”
    • Also stated in: § Task-Switching Meta-Analysis Results · boosted
      “A region in the opercular part of the IFG (BA47), situated ventral and anterior to the frontal area noted above, showed a strong bilateral pattern that was not seen in the WCST map.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The ALE method assumes that for each study there is a given spatial distribution of activity and an associated set of maximal coordinates.
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Across-study heterogeneity in experimental setup and manipulations does not substantially affect the aggregate ALE picture.
    • The authors state this as an assumption: If the null hypothesis is true, each set of coordinates may reasonably be assumed to have come about by way of some random spatial process.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The task-switching ALE map revealed a strong frontoparietal activation pattern with additional clusters in occipital and inferior temporal regions.

    “The task-switching ALE map also revealed a strong frontoparietal activation pattern with some additional clusters in occipital and inferior temporal regions (Fig. 1; Table II).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The ALE method assumes that for each study there is a given spatial distribution of activity and an associated set of maximal coordinates.
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Across-study heterogeneity in experimental setup and manipulations does not substantially affect the aggregate ALE picture.
    • The authors state this as an assumption: If the null hypothesis is true, each set of coordinates may reasonably be assumed to have come about by way of some random spatial process.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The go/no-go ALE map showed the greatest regional specificity and the least left-right symmetry among the three analyses.

    “Of the three analyses, the pattern of activation seen in the go/no-go ALE map showed the greatest regional specificity and the least amount of left-right symmetry.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The ALE method assumes that for each study there is a given spatial distribution of activity and an associated set of maximal coordinates.
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Across-study heterogeneity in experimental setup and manipulations does not substantially affect the aggregate ALE picture.
    • The authors state this as an assumption: If the null hypothesis is true, each set of coordinates may reasonably be assumed to have come about by way of some random spatial process.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The right prefrontal cluster in the go/no-go analysis (IFG and MFG) had a volume of 13,427 mm3, more than 30 times larger than a similar left region (388 mm3).

    “Most marked was the cluster of activity seen in the right prefrontal cortex (including the IFG and middle frontal gyrus [MFG] with a volume of 13,427 mm 3 , more than 30 times larger than a region in a similar location on the left [388 mm 3 ]).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The ALE method assumes that for each study there is a given spatial distribution of activity and an associated set of maximal coordinates.
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Across-study heterogeneity in experimental setup and manipulations does not substantially affect the aggregate ALE picture.
    • The authors state this as an assumption: If the null hypothesis is true, each set of coordinates may reasonably be assumed to have come about by way of some random spatial process.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The three tasks' regional activation profiles were distinguishable, most notably by the strong right prefrontal cortex activation in the go/no-go meta-analysis.

    “The regional profiles across the three tasks were not indistinguishable from one another, as was especially evident in the strong right PFC activation in the go/no-go meta-analysis.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Milner (1963) concluded that patients with frontal lesions were more prone to perseverative errors, persisting in a sorting strategy despite continued negative feedback.

    “In addition, Milner [1963] concluded that patients with frontal lesions were more prone to”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Milner, 1963

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The WCST is a complex and multifactorial task.

    “That a variety of brain lesions can give rise to impairments on WCST performance is not surprising given the complexity and multifactorial nature of the task itself [Andres, 2003].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Andres, 2003

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    The ability to shift from one mode of solution to another on a sorting task is more impaired by frontal than by posterior cerebral injury.

    “Firmly linking poor performance on the WCST and lesions to the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in humans was the work of Brenda Milner [1963], who provided strong support”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Milner, 1963

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisereasoning

    After a new rule is discovered, successful WCST performance requires maintaining it in mind and applying it repeatedly until negative feedback is encountered again.

    “Third, once the rule has been discovered, it must be maintained in mind and applied repeatedly until negative feedback is once again encountered.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Patients with frontal lobe damage achieve significantly fewer WCST categories and generate more perseverations relative to nonperseverative errors than patients with posterior lesions.

    “A more recent (and exhaustive) meta-analysis [Demakis, 2003] confirms the view that patients with frontal lobe damage achieve significantly fewer WCST categories and generate more perseverations (relative to nonperseverative errors) than do patients with posterior lesions.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Demakis, 2003

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    In the WCST, extended periods of predictability allow automatic processes to take over, so inhibitory control is required to overcome old habits.

    “As the WCST involves extended periods of predictability (rule changes only occur after 10 correct sorts), automatic processes take over during the stretches of routine sorting that follow the cognitive tumult of a dimensional change.In the WCST, old habits thus must die hard and to ensure that they do, some form of inhibitory control is required.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisereasoning

    Task-switching paradigms offer a simple and streamlined way of examining the behavioral and brain correlates of shifting cognitive set.

    “In short, then, task-switching paradigms offer a simple and streamlined way of examining the behavioral and brain correlates of shifting cognitive set.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisenone given

    After a change in the relevant stimulus dimension, successful WCST performance requires searching for a new rule by trying each stimulus dimension until a correct match is attained.

    “Second, over the next few sorts, the subject must search for a new rule by trying each stimulus dimension until a correct match is attained.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisereasoning

    After a change in the relevant stimulus dimension, successful WCST performance requires recognizing from negative feedback that the current strategy is no longer appropriate and should be abandoned.

    “First, the subject must recognize based on negative feedback that the current strategy is no longer appropriate and should be abandoned.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The WCST falls short of being the perfect test of frontal lobe function because lesions to the temporal and parietal lobes frequently lead to impaired WCST performance, including perseverative errors.

    “Nevertheless, it is now clear that lesions to the temporal and parietal lobes do lead frequently to impaired performance, including errors of perseveration, on the WCST and therefore the WCST falls short of being the”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Demakis, 2003

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The WCST places a heavy burden on brain processes responsible for the storage and manipulation of stimulus representations no longer available through direct perception.

    “Many authors have argued [Berman et al., 1995;Goldman-Rakic, 1991;Sullivan et al., 1993] that although the WCST was not devised specifically as a test of the short-term memory system, it nevertheless places a heavy burden on brain processes responsible for the storage and manipulation of stimulus representations no longer available through direct perception.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Berman et al., 1995

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Goldman-Rakic, 1991

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Sullivan et al., 1993

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The go/no-go task is the most basic paradigm for studying response suppression.

    “The most basic paradigm for the study of response suppression is the go/no-go task [Butter, 1969;Passingham, 1972].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Butter, 1969

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Passingham, 1972

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    The go/no-go task provides a way to study an important cognitive component of the WCST in relative isolation.

    “As with the task-switching paradigm, the go/ no-go test provides a way of studying, in relative isolation, an important cognitive component of the WCST.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisereasoning

    Shifting set requires at least two complementary processes: reconfiguration of the currently activated set of goal-relevant attributes and suppression of the previously relevant category.

    “Shifting set requires at least two complementary processes, the first of which, as discussed above, involves a reconfiguration of the currently activated set of goal-relevant attributes of the perceptual environment: e.g., I must now pay attention to the category”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisereasoning

    Good performance on the WCST requires a certain amount of cognitive flexibility.

    “It is clear that good performance on the WCST requires a certain amount of cognitive flexibility.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    The task-switching and go/no-go paradigms provide the closest operational parallel for the theoretical constructs of set shifting and inhibitory control.

    “We believe that the task-switching and go/ no-go paradigms provide the closest operational parallel for the theoretical constructs just mentioned.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The three tasks show a good deal of similarity, along with notable differences, in their regional patterns of activation.

    “A comparison of the ALE results shows that the three tasks of interest show a good deal of similarity, along with some notable differences, in the regional patterns of activation disclosed by probabilistic meta-analyses of published stereotaxic coordinates.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The WCST was developed specifically to provide an objective technique for measuring human abstraction and shift of set.

    “The task was developed specifically to provide an objective technique for measuring”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Grant and Berg, 1948

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Succeeding at the WCST requires learning, memory, attention, perceptual discrimination, and executive control.

    “Succeeding at the WCST requires the subject's entire cognitive arsenal: learning, memory, attention, perceptual discrimination, and executive control.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The WCST has long been used by researchers of brain disorders to assess the integrity of frontal lobe functions.

    “The Wisconsin Card-Sorting test [WCST; Grant and Berg, 1948] has long been used by researchers of brain disorders as a way to assess the integrity of the functions of the frontal lobes.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Grant and Berg, 1948

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    The ALE method yields a statistical map indicating the set of brain voxels that are more active than would be expected by chance alone.

    “Indeed, the method yields a statistical map that indicates the set of brain voxels that are more active than would be expected by chance alone.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Turkeltaub et al. [2002]

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Interference resolution helps one decide among many options, while response inhibition stops an automatic or prepotent action from being carried out.

    “That is, interference resolution can be seen as a mechanism important for arriving at a decision when many possible choices are available whereas response inhibition is a process that occurs to prevent an automatic (or prepotent) action from proceeding to fruition.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductcitation

    Formal confirmation of these observations would require direct statistical comparison between ALE maps.

    “Direct statistical comparison between ALE maps would be necessary for formal confirmation of these observations, and such methods are beginning to be developed [see Laird et al., 2005].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Laird et al., 2005

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    The evidence suggests that response suppression matters for both the WCST and task switching.

    “There is thus evidence that response suppression is important for both the WCST and task switching.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Response suppression is thought to happen after interference resolution in processing.

    “One suggestion is that response suppression occurs at a later processing stage than does interference resolution.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    When a stimulus affords several possible actions, a mechanism must intervene to narrow them to one course of action.

    “When an encountered stimulus suggests a multiplicity of possible actions, either because of the semantic diversity of the object itself or because of the subject's own past predilections, some mechanism must intervene to reduce this manifold potentiality to a single course of action.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    In the WCST, as the task goes on, each perceptual category competes more for attention and suggests multiple actions; if interference from the different card categories is not resolved, the subject will not sort correctly.

    “As the task proceeds, each perceptual category increasingly competes for the subject's notice and suggests several possible actions; without some way of resolving the interference presented by the different card categories, the subject will fail to sort the cards correctly.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
35 of 35

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The ALE method assumes that for each study there is a given spatial distribution of activity and an associated set of maximal coordinates.

    “the ALE method assumes necessarily that for each study of interest there is a given spatial distribution of activity and an associated set of maximal coordinates.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Across-study heterogeneity in experimental setup and manipulations does not substantially affect the aggregate ALE picture.

    “It was our view, especially with respect to the studies of the WCST, that some degree of across-study heterogeneity in the experimental set-up and manipulations of interest could be accounted more a virtue than is generally assumed in conventional (e.g., without a spatial component) meta-analyses.”
    “Insofar as the studies entered into any single metaanalysis reflect as a whole the prevailing commonalities of the group, those inessential or extraneous differences among the set will tend not to have much of an effect on the aggregate picture.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    If the null hypothesis is true, each set of coordinates may reasonably be assumed to have come about by way of some random spatial process.

    “If the null hypothesis is true, then each set of coordinates (one set per study) may reasonably be assumed to have come about by way of some random spatial process.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The WCST, task switching, and response suppression each involve a kind of executive attention.

    “Because each task involves a kind of executive attention, a degree of similarity was observed in their respective spatial patterns of activation.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Task switching and response suppression are component processes of the WCST.

    “We have examined through the use of the ALE metaanalytic technique to what extent the WCST and two of its hypothesized component processes, task switching and response suppression, share a common neural substrate.”
5 of 5

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • A recent ALE meta-analysis of Go/No-go tasks reported a mainly right-lateralized network associated with response inhibition, including right middle/inferior frontal gyrus (BA46/44), right inferior parietal regions (BA40), and superior medial frontal gyrus (BA6), but represented a wide range of tasks with different cognitive and working memory demands.

    “Recently, an ALE meta-analysis of Go/No-go tasks was performed (Buchsbaum et al., 2005), reporting a mainly right-lateralized network associated with response inhibition, including the right middle/inferior frontal gyrus (BA46/44), right inferior parietal regions (BA40), and the superior medial frontal gyrus (BA6); however, a wide range of Go/No-go tasks with different cognitive and working memory”

    From Meta-analysis of Go/No-go tasks demonstrating that fMRI activation associated with response inhibition is task-dependent (2008) · cites this paper as Buchsbaum et al., 2005

  • Buchsbaum et al. selected studies employing a range of analytic approaches, including block designs and a variety of event-related approaches, which may have impacted their meta-analysis findings.

    “Additionally, Buchsbaum et al. selected studies employing a range of analytic approaches, including those from block designs and a variety of event-related approaches; this may have impacted their meta-analysis findings.”

    From Meta-analysis of Go/No-go tasks demonstrating that fMRI activation associated with response inhibition is task-dependent (2008) · cites this paper as Buchsbaum et al., 2005

  • Several tasks used to study inhibition during fMRI, such as the Wisconsin Card Sorting Task and the Stroop task, involve additional cognitive processes including stimulus-response conflict, learning, working memory and shifting attention, and the degree to which these processes are engaged may affect localization of inhibitory activity.

    “Several tasks used to study inhibition during fMRI such as the Wisconsin Cart Sorting Task and the Stroop task involve additional cognitive processes necessary to guide response inhibition, including stimulus-response conflict, learning, working memory and shifting attention (Buchsbaum et al., 2005); as all of these processes have been shown to involve various regions of the prefrontal cortex, the”

    From Meta-analysis of Go/No-go tasks demonstrating that fMRI activation associated with response inhibition is task-dependent (2008) · cites this paper as Buchsbaum et al., 2005

  • Within complex tasks only, concurrence of activation was seen in a right-lateralized set of regions including the middle/inferior frontal gyrus and inferior parietal lobule (BA40), near the temporo-parietal junction.

    “Within the complex tasks only, and consistent with findings from Buchsbaum et al., concurrence of activation was seen in a right-lateralized set of regions including the middle/inferior frontal gyrus and inferior parietal lobule (BA40), near the temporo-parietal junction.”

    From Meta-analysis of Go/No-go tasks demonstrating that fMRI activation associated with response inhibition is task-dependent (2008) · cites this paper as Buchsbaum et al., 2005

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • The 388 mm3 left frontal cluster has conflicting labels

    Minor

    The go/no-go prose calls the 388 mm3 cluster inferior frontal, whereas Table III identifies it as middle frontal.

  • Figure captions assign different colors to the same conjunction

    Minor

    The Figure 2 caption calls the WCST-go/no-go conjunction blue, while the Figure 3 caption calls that conjunction cyan and reserves blue for go/no-go alone.

2 of 2

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 2

  1. Goldman‐Rakic PS, 1991, Psychopathology and the brain, 1
  2. SaadZS ReynoldsRC ArgallB JapeeS CoxRW(2004):SUMA: an interface for surface‐based intra‐ and inter‐subject analysis with AFNI. Proceedings of the IEEE International Symposium on Biomedical Imaging 15–18 April2004 Arlington VA. IEEE. p1510–1511.

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Sorted by citations

Authors
Buchsbaum, B. R., Greer, S., Chang, W., & Berman, K. F.
Affiliations
National Institutes of Health (US)
ORCID
Venue
Human Brain Mapping
Publisher
Wiley
Published
2005-04-21
Volume
25
Issue
1
Pages
35-45
ISSN
  • 1065-9471 (ISSN-L)
  • 1097-0193
DOI
10.1002/hbm.20128
PMC
PMC6871753
OpenAlex
W1973967428
Semantic Scholar
9a948680eb9706209fb5047e3c6b2d1096907add
Cited by
477
References
84
Citations by year
2026: 8 · 2025: 18 · 2024: 17 · 2023: 15 · 2022: 20 · 2021: 26 · 2020: 32 · 2019: 26 · 2018: 27 · 2017: 24 · 2016: 23 · 2015: 30 · 2014: 27 · 2013: 21 · 2012: 24
FWCI
8.57
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
onlinelibrary.wiley.com/termsAndConditions#vor (vor)
Locations
  • Human Brain Mapping (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Historical and Modern Theater Studies
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neurobiology of Language and Bilingualism
Keywords
Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, executive function, task switching, response suppression, go/no-go task, frontoparietal activation, lateral prefrontal cortex, anterior cingulate cortex, inferior parietal lobule, right prefrontal cortex
MeSH terms
Brain, Diagnostic Imaging, Humans, Neuropsychological Tests, Psychomotor Performance, Meta-Analysis as Topic

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-06.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-06.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

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