Working Memory: The Multiple-Component Model

“It is assumed that goal-oriented behavior is supported by the working memory system, which consists of the domain-general central executive and domainspecific storage components (Baddeley, 1986; Baddeley and Logie, 1999).”

“There is a dissociation between spatial and nonspatialworking memory (Baddeley & Logie, 1999; Courtney, Petit, Maisog, & Ungerleider, 1998; Courtney, Ungerleider, Keil, & Haxby, 1996; McCarthy, et al., 1996; Smith, et al., 1995), and spatial processing has been implicated during visual search tasks…”

“…MD 21205, USA e-mail: cmarvel1@jhmi.edu The Interdependence of Speech and Working Memory According to a popular model of working memory, the phonological loop provides 1–2 sec of passive storage of verbal information, which can be refreshed via an active rehearsal process (Baddeley and Logie 1999).”

“Several theorists proposed that working memory consists of multiple domain-specific subsystems, with each subsystem being fueled by its own pool of resources (e.g., Baddeley & Logie, 1999).”

“However, Baddeley and Logie (1999) proposed that it only has attention capacity.”

“We therefore proposed an executive that was purely an attentional control system, relying for storage on the slave systems and on LTM (Baddeley, 1996, 1998; Baddeley & Logie, 1999).”

“Working memory can be thought of as the ‘‘moment-to-moment monitoring, processing, and maintenance of information’’ (Baddeley & Logie, 1999, p.28).”

“Long-term knowledge can influence the operation of working memory, but the two are considered strictly separable cognitive systems (Baddeley and Logie, 1999).”

“The short-term storage aspect is supported by domainspecific components for verbal and visuospatial information (see Baddeley & Logie, 1999, for a review).”

“According to the current working memory view, scores on the two verbal complex memory span measures involve both storage in the phonological loop and also tap the processing resources associated with the central executive component (e.g., Baddeley & Logie, 1999).”

“Defining Type of Information and Domain-Dependent Organization The term working memory has traditionally been associated with the maintenance of specific stimulus features, such as phonological, visual, or spatial information (Baddeley & Hitch, 1974; Baddeley & Logie, 1999).”

“Working memory processes are involved in the temporary storage and manipulation of information that supports the ongoing regulation of behavior and are critical in decision-making and problem-solving contexts (Baddeley & Logie, 1999, Goldman-Rakic, 1987).”

“At the same time, self-regulation is often conceptualized as being resource-consuming (e.g., regulation of task coordination can be disrupted by an increased load; Baddeley & Logie, 1999).”

“Within the multiple component model of working memory (Baddeley, 2000; Baddeley & Hitch, 1974) it is thought that processing employs the central executive and maintenance involves the domain-specific storage systems (e.g. Baddeley & Logie, 1999; Duff & Logie, 2001; LaPointe & Engle, 1990).”

“…Rogers, Pennington, & Ross, 2002); studies of the electrophysiology of delay period activity of the frontal eye fields in nonhuman primates (Balan & Ferrera, 2003a, 2003b); and theoretical developments in working memory (e.g., Baddeley & Logie, 1999; Logie, 1995, 2003; Postle & D’Esposito, 2003).”

“Although cognitive load theory often refers to Baddeley’s (1992, 1999; Baddeley & Logie, 1999) model of working memory as an important foundation, it has also been argued that the link between cognitive load theory and models of working memory is “loose and appears at least partly inconsistent”…”

“More tentatively, a corresponding mechanism is proposed for internal mental scanning and the refreshing of nonverbal, visuo-spatial information (e.g., Baddeley & Logie, 1999; Logie, 2009).”

“…on concurrent processing associated with the central executive/ general working memory system, the phonological and visuo-spatial short-term memory tasks impose minimal processing loads, tapping instead the storage capacity of the respective working memory slave systems (Baddeley & Logie, 1999).”

“The multicomponent model of working memory comprises a limited-capacity central executive, a phonological loop, and a visual-spatial sketchpad (VSSP; Baddeley, 1986, 1996; Baddeley & Hitch, 1974; Baddeley & Logie, 1999).”

“…is very controversial, with neurophysiologists and cognitive psychologists suggesting these differences stem from: working memory differences (Baddeley & Logie, 1999; Niederhauser, Reynolds, Salmen, & Skolmoski, 2000); fluid intelligence/spatial ability differences (Ackerman, Beier, &…”

“…function as Cowan’s general purpose mechanism, but with activated traces transferred from the longterm knowledge base into working memory where they are stored on a temporary basis in the slave systems, but are combined and manipulated in the executive (Baddeley & Logie, 1999; Logie, 1995, 1996).”

“…incorporates separate temporary storage devices specialized respectively for storing phonologically based information (the phonological loop) or visuo-spatial information on a temporary basis (Baddeley, 1986, 1996; Baddeley & Hitch, 1974; Baddeley & Logie, 1999; Burgess & Hitch, 1992; Logie, 1995).”

“The tripartite WM model (Baddeley and Hitch, 1974; Baddeley and Logie, 1999; Baddeley, 2000, 2001) includes a Central Executive System (CES) responding to different cognitive functions (e.g., attention, activeinhibition, planning, updating, maintenance and integration of information) and two…”

“…that consist of a central executive and specialized peripheral processors, or slave systems: Baddeley’s (1998, 2000, 2001; Baddeley & Hitch, 1974; Baddeley & Logie, 1999) multicomponent model of WM and the model of WM embedded in Schneider’s Connectionist Control Architecture (Schneider, 1999).”

“None of these involves assumptions over and above those already made by the phonological loop model (Baddeley, 1986; Baddeley & Logie, 1999).”

“Nearly all working-memory theorists agree that the working-memory components that accomplish this maintenance task include a central executive function, and two slave functions: a visuospatial sketchpad and a speech loop (e.g., Baddeley, 1992; Baddeley & Logie, 1999; Cowan, 1999).”

“However, such encoding and retrie processes would be supported by the centra ecutive (Baddeley & Logie, 1999).”

“Although an equivalent mechanism for visuospatial information has been hypothesized in some versions of the multiple-component model (Baddeley & Logie, 1999; see also Logie, 2011), several recent findings suggest that, unlike verbal material, spatial information has only an attention-based…”

“…that short-term maintenance of verbal information during repetition is not subtended by specific and dedicated storage buffers, contrary to a number of theoretical models of verbal maintenance (Martin et al., 1994b; Baddeley et al., 1998; Baddeley and Logie, 1999; Vallar and Papagno, 2002).”

“The traditional model in which there are separate verbal-phonological and visual-spatial buffers controlled by a central executive (Baddeley, 1986; Baddeley & Logie, 1999; Hulme & Tordoff, 1989; van der Meulen, Logie, & Della Sala, 2009; Schweickert et al., 1990) appears designed to handle certain…”

“Keywords: n-back, working memory updating, working memory development, memory development in children, working memory Introduction Working memory (WM) is a system that enables one to actively maintain and regulate a limited amount of task-relevant information (Baddeley and Logie, 1999).”

“…memory “allow[s] humans to comprehend and mentally represent their immediate environment, to retain information about their immediate past experience, to support the acquisition of new knowledge, to solve problems, and to formulate, relate and act on current goals” (Baddeley & Logie, 1999, p. 28).”

“Further work would be needed to determine if the requirement for attention applies to spatial or non-spatial aspects of visual memory, which seem separable (Baddeley & Logie, 1999; Klauer & Zengmei, 2004).”

“According to Baddeley’s working memory model (Baddeley, 2002; Baddeley & Hitch, 1974; Baddeley & Logie, 1999), working memory is made up of several specialized components, including an auditory-verbal component, the phonological loop, and a visuospatial component, the visuospatial sketchpad.”

“The information held in WM is typically manipulated, reorganized, or updated, and these active functions are performed and regulated by a “central executive” (Baddeley & Logie, 1999) or “controlled attention” (Cowan, 1999).”

“…Bandettini, & Ungerleider, 2002; Constantinides, Franowicz, & Goldman- Rakic, 2001; Funahashi, Chafee, & Goldman-Rakic, 1993), and can thus be viewed as supporting the buffers of a multiple-component working memory system such as that proposed by Baddeley (2000) and Baddeley and Logie (1999).”

“(Baddeley & Logie, 1999).”

“…no memory loss over time in the absence of distraction, whereas there would be loss of memory over time in the presence of verbal distraction or interference, either because of the ability to engage in verbal rehearsal (Baddeley & Logie, 1999) or attentional refreshing J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn.”

“3Indeed, Logie (2016), a long-time proponent of the central executive (Baddeley and Logie, 1999), recently declared that the field is now ready to “retire” it.”

“The use of component models is a widely accepted approach in cognitive psychology, for example, in determining the processes involved in working memory (Baddeley and Logie 1999). Waters, Townsend, and Underwood (1998) used a set of six predictors to show that sight-reading achievement can be explained by three compone…”

“It has been argued that the executive system functions to access information from LTM (e.g., Baddeley & Logie, 1999; Conway & Engle, 1994).”

“Observations of selective interference resulted in the domain-based fractionation of the visuo-spatial peripheral system into a visual component and a spatial component (Baddeley, 2007; Baddeley & Logie, 1999; Logie, 1995).”

“Within both of these models short-term memory tasks are thought to employ domain-specific storage systems, with working memory tasks drawing upon both storage and attentional resources (e.g., Baddeley & Logie, 1999; Duff & Logie, 2001).”

“…goal representation in memory in comparison to the activation of semantic knowledge, which shows a rapid decay of activation in memory over very short periods of time, usually within a couple of seconds (Baddeley & Logie, 1999; Higgins, Bargh, & Lombardi, 1985; Mckone, 1995; Wyer & Srull, 1986).”

“…functions of cognition are functions that are typically attributed to the central executive component of working memory (see Baddeley, 1986; Baddeley & Logie, 1999; Engle, Kane, & Tuholski, 1999), and so, to that extent, the skills exhibited by test takers with mature epistemic beliefs…”

“…storage in memory during the previous decades have moved from multi-store models and structural approaches championed by Baddeley and Hitch (1974; Baddeley and Logie 1999) to more dynamic or process-oriented models of working memory (Cowan 1995 1999; Engle, Cantor and Carullo 1992; Engle, Kane…”

“However, the finding that visual and not verbal WM was associated with performance on the Simon Task is inconsistent with the notion that WM capacity is driven by a domain-general mechanism, as would be predicted by Baddeley and Logie (1999). Instead it is more consistent with the view of domainspecific constructs for…”

“According to the “materialspecific” view and in line with the Baddeley's models (Baddeley & Logie, 1999), some early neuroimaging studies implicated DLPFC as a crucial site for the domain-specific maintenance of spatial information (Courtney, Ungerleider, Keil, & Haxby, 1996; McCarthy et al., 1996;…”

“WM has been described as a finite cognitive resource system responsible for temporary storage and processing of information within immediate awareness (Baddeley, 1986, 2000; Baddeley & Logie, 1999).”

“…by different systems (e.g., an articulatory loop vs. a visuospatial scratch pad, as in the multiplecomponent model [Baddeley & Hitch, 1974; Baddeley & Logie, 1999; Logie, 1995] ) may need to be modified to acknowledge the multiplicity of representational codes that can represent visual…”

“The interference account proposes that information is lost because of competition from other information (Baddeley & Logie, 1999; Cowan, 1999; Schneider & Detweiler, 1987).”

“In this model, two non-executive slave systems (the phonological loop and the visuospatial sketch-pad) provide rehearsal and temporary storage while the central executive manages attentional control (Baddeley & Logie, 1999).”