Working Memory: The Multiple-Component Model

“By the late 1990s, we had attempted to specify more clearly the role of the central executive by proposing that its functions were entirely that of an attentionally-based control system, and abandoning the idea that it also had a capacity for storage (Baddeley & Logie, 1999).”

“…listening or reading span that involve the retention of verbal material is mediated by the phonological loop, whereas the processing demands of the tasks are supported by central executive resources (Baddeley & Logie, 1999; Duff & Logie, 2001; see also, LaPointe & Engle, 1990; Lobley et al., 2003).”

“The central executive, on the other hand, is a system of attentional control able to focus and switch attention, but without a storage capacity (Baddeley and Logie 1999).”

“The dissociability of the verbal and visuo-spatial memory factors must therefore arise from additional domain-specific components to the tasks, possibly reflecting in part at least the contributions of modality-specific storage systems (Baddeley & Logie, 1999).”

“In contrast, in the conception of WM as a multi-component system (e.g., Baddeley, 1986; Baddeley & Logie, 1999), attention tended to be associated with executive control but not with storage per se; that storage was assumed to be automatic once the information was entered into it, and it was…”

“Within the tripartite model, however, it is difficult to provide a convincing account, given the limited capacity of the subsystems and the assumption that the central executive is a purely attentional system without its own storage capacity (Baddeley, 1996; Baddeley & Logie, 1999).”

“Thus, the memory traces of the items to be recalled suffer from a time-related decay as soon as attention is switched away from maintenance (Baddeley & Logie, 1999; Cowan, 1999).”

“Baddeley's (Baddeley & Hitch, 1974; Baddeley & Logie, 1999) multi-component model describes working memory as a limited capacity central executive system that interacts with a set of two passive subsystems used for the temporary storage of different classes of information: the speech-based…”

“…memory assumes the existence of a central executive that coordinates two slave systems, a visuospatial sketchpad for visuospatial information such as written texts or pictures and a phonological loop for phonological information such as spoken text or music (Baddeley, 1986; Baddeley & Logie, 1999).”

“…that working memory impairment was more closely associated with damage to the supramarginal gyrus in the parietal cortex, and because of double dissociations between samples with speech planning and speech production difficulties (see Baddeley & Logie, 1999, for a review of these arguments).”

“Miyake et al. based their study on Baddeley’s multicomponent model of working memory (Baddeley & Logie, 1999), according to which working memory consists of two distinct domain-specific subsystems, the visuospatial sketchpad and the phonological loop, for processing visuospatial and verbal…”

“Theoretically, deliberate switching of retrieval cues in this way is seen as a central executive function in working memory models (Baddeley & Logie, 1999; Engle, Tuholski, Laughlin, & Conway, 1999), and therefore the central executive would be expected to be involved in divergent production of…”

“Baddeley and Logie (1999) stated that a major role of WM " is retrieval of stored long-term knowledge relevant to the tasks at hand, the manipulation and recombination of material allowing the interpretation of novel stimuli, and the discovery of novel information or the solution to problems " (p.…”

“The relationships between processing and storage Most of the theories favor a multi-component approach of working memory in which processing and storage rely on different systems (Baddeley, 1996, 2000; Baddeley & Logie, 1999; Kieras et al., 1999; Schneider & Detweiler, 1987).”

“…number of prominent working memory models that differ on both structural and functional dimensions (see Miyake & Shah, 1999b), research examining working memory in the context of mathematical computation has most often used Baddeley's (1986; Baddeley & Logie, 1999) multicomponent model as a guide.”

“When overviews are visually complex, the increase in cognitive load required to use the overview may detract from the overall processing in a limited-capacity system, consistent with the predictions of working memory models (e.g., Baddeley & Logie, 1999).”

“…control describe it as a “central process” that governs responses to complex problems and requires: determining where to focus and switch attention (Baddeley and Logie 1999); correction of errors, sequencing of actions and multi-step problem-solving (Shallice and Burgess 1991); and creation and…”

“…storage of information is mediated by two domain-specific stores: The phonological loop provides temporary storage of verbal material, and the visuospatial sketchpad specializes in the maintenance and manipulation of visual and spatial representations (see Baddeley & Logie, 1999, for a review).”

“For example, Baddeley and Logie (1999) described working memory as a mechanism to 'allow humans to comprehend and mentally represent their immediate environment, to retain information about their immediate past experience, to support the acquisition of new knowledge, to solve problems, and to…”

“The WM tasks were designed to reflect storage requirements, plus concurrent processing (Baddeley & Logie, 1999).”

“Baddeley and Logie (1999) suggested that information not accommodated by the working memory short-term stores (e.g., lexical and semantic information in verbal working memory) contributes to working memory performance via activation of representations in long-term memory.”

“The control of attention is the primary function of the central executive in all the approaches to WM that have been adapted for use in L2 research (e.g. Baddeley & Logie 1999; Engle & Kane 2004; Cowan 2005).”

“…in tasks with heavy real-time processing demands, such as mental arithmetic and other forms of mathematical computation, Baddeley’s (1986; Baddeley & Logie, 1999) multicomponent model has most often been used to explore the role of working memory in performance (Trbovich & LeFevre,…”

“WM is defined as a processing resource of limited capacity, involved in the preservation of information while processing the same or other information (e.g., Baddeley & Logie, 1999; Unsworth & Engle, 2007).”

“More specifically, as stated by Baddeley and Logie (1999), a major role of WM “is retrieval of stored long-term knowledge relevant to the tasks at hand, the manipulation and recombination of material allowing the interpretation of novel stimuli, and the discovery of novel information or the…”

“Since there is some evidence that ADHD adults perform the Stroop by not activating the ACC but bilaterally activating the insula [61], studies of response conflict in children are urgently required in order to determine whether this finding also occurs in children with ADHD.”

““Sounding out” and “visualizing” are strategies that use two of the components available in working memory (the phonological loop and the visual-spatial sketchpad, respectively; Baddeley & Logie, 1999).”

“For example, the model developed by Baddeley et al. (Baddeley and Logie, 1999; Logie, 1995) includes one system for temporary maintenance and manipulation of verbal or auditory information (the “phonological loop”) and one that has a similar function for visual material (the visuospatial sketchpad).”

“With some modifications, Baddeley and others (e.g. Baddeley & Logie 1999; Miyake & Shah 1999) currently view the central executive either as a unitary system or multiple systems of varying functions including attention, active-inhibition, decisionmaking , planning, sequencing, temporal tagging, and…”

“Baddeley and Logie (1999) [28] further described working memory as a mechanism that allowed humans to comprehend and mentally represent their immediate environment, retain information about their immediate past experience, support the acquisition of new knowledge, solve problems, and formulate, relate, and act on curr…”

“Similarly, the visuospatial sketchpad may be conceived as including both a visual store and an active scribe (Baddeley & Logie, 1999).”

“…requirements, that determines whether or not performance will be substantially impaired under dualtask conditions (e.g., Farmer, Berman, & Fletcher, 1986; Logie, Cocchini,Della Sala, & Baddeley, 2002; Logie et al., 1990; Wickens & Yeh, 1983; for a recent review, see Baddeley & Logie, 1999).”

“Specifically, a growing body of evidence from behavioral (for reviews, see Baddeley & Logie, 1999; Logie, 1995), neuroanatomical (for reviews, see Goldman-Rakic,1996;Smith & Jonides, 1997), and neuropsychological (e.g., Carlesimo, Perri, Turriziani, Tomaiuolo, & Caltagirone, 2001; De Renzi &…”

“The most common conceptualization of this requirement is in terms of WM load (i.e., Baddeley, 1986; Baddeley & Logie, 1999).”

“These are co-ordinated by a domain-general limited capacity system, the central executive, which commands a number of functions including planning, inhibition, switching attention, and monitoring the processing of temporarily held information (Baddeley, 1986, 1996; Baddeley & Logie, 1999).”

“In the case of working memory, intended as the amount of cognitive resources available to store information while at the same time processing incoming or recently accessed information for use in other cognitive tasks (Baddeley, 1986; Baddeley & Hitch, 1974; Shah & Miyake, 1999), a large number of studies have clearly…”

“Simultaneously performing two attention-demanding tasks typically leads to worse performance than if either task was performed alone (Baddeley & Logie, 1999).”

“There is considerable evidence that humans have two separate working-memory systems, or channels: one for processing visual or pictorial information, and one for processing auditory or verbal information (Baddeley, 1986; Baddeley & Logie, 1999; Paivio, 1986).”

“…responses (inhibition) – see Miyake, Friedman, Emerson, Witzki, and Howerter (2000); (ii) Attention (consisting of sustained attention and control attention) see Posner and Petersen (1990); and (iii) Memory (short-term memory, working memory and long-term memory) see Baddeley and Logie (1999).”

“In contrast, other types of storage in this model that comprise phonological and visuospatial storage are assumed not to require attention for memory maintenance (Baddeley, 1986; Baddeley & Logie, 1999).”

“This view is consistent with theories stressing the active and constructive nature of working memory systems (Baddeley & Logie, 1999; Cowan, 1999).”

“…of information is mediated by two domain-specific stores: the phonological loop provides temporary storage of verbal material, and the visuo-spatial sketchpad is specialized for the maintenance and manipulation of visual and spatial representations (see Baddeley & Logie, 1999, for a review).”

“As conceived of by Baddeley and Hitch, and recently modified by Baddeley and Logie (1999) and Baddeley (2001), working memory is a tripartite cognitive system consisting of a central executive, primarily involved in maintaining relevant attention and decision-making (the latter two processes are…”

“The theory of Cowan (1988, 2001, 2005a) includes attention as a storage device but similar results might be achieved if attention is used only as a processor, as in the central executive function of Baddeley (1986) or Baddeley and Logie (1999).”

“…framework of the multi-component model of working memory, a large number of studies showed the influential role of articulatory rehearsal by the phonological loop (Baddeley, 1986; Baddeley & Hitch, 1974; Baddeley, Lewis, & Vallar, 1984; Baddeley & Logie, 1999; Baddeley, Thomson, & Buchanan, 1975).”

“…components in Baddeley’s multiple-component model of working memory that act together for the production of the moment-by-moment monitoring, processing, and maintenance necessary for information processing associated with proficient reading (Baddeley & Hitch, 1974; Baddeley & Logie, 1999).”

“Email: t.p.alloway@durham.ac.uk Tracy P. Alloway*, Susan E. Gathercole, Hannah Kirkwood and Julian Elliott 726 maintenance and manipulation of visual and spatial representations (see Baddeley & Logie, 1999, for a review).”

“WM Capacity and Attention Control We view WM as the set of cognitive structures important for carrying out elementary cognitive operations (Baddeley & Logie, 1999; Cowan, 2001).”

“One potential mechanism for this relationship was explored in Experiment 2, in which we tested normal participants on the WCST under conditions of articulatory suppression (Baddeley & Logie, 1999).”

“This reinforces the view that executive control reflects a range of processes in the healthy brain (e.g., Baddeley & Logie, 1999; Lovett, Reder, & Lebiere, 1999; Miyake, Friedman, Emerson, Witzki, & Howerter , 2000) rather than a single, general-purpose control mechanism (e.g., Cowan, 1999; Kane &…”

“This information remains activated for several minutes beyond the span of working memory alone, continuing to support reading comprehension (e.g., Baddeley & Logie, 1999; Kintsch, 1998).”