The DOI matches its Crossref record; 81 of the 82 references it cites were found in a registry or an index, and 1 are not checked yet; none of the 24 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.
Emotion regulation: affective, cognitive, and social consequences.
Open accessAbstract
One of life's great challenges is successfully regulating emotions. Do some emotion regulation strategies have more to recommend them than others? According to Gross's (1998, Review of General Psychology, 2, 271-299) process model of emotion regulation, strategies that act early in the emotion-generative process should have a different profile of consequences than strategies that act later on. This review focuses on two commonly used strategies for down-regulating emotion. The first, reappraisal, comes early in the emotion-generative process. It consists of changing the way a situation is construed so as to decrease its emotional impact. The second, suppression, comes later in the emotion-generative process. It consists of inhibiting the outward signs of inner feelings. Experimental and individual-difference studies find reappraisal is often more effective than suppression. Reappraisal decreases emotion experience and behavioral expression, and has no impact on memory. By contrast, suppression decreases behavioral expression, but fails to decrease emotion experience, and actually impairs memory. Suppression also increases physiological responding for suppressors and their social partners. This review concludes with a consideration of five important directions for future research on emotion regulation processes.
Checked 2026-10-05 · 1 reference not checked yet
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
27 Own result · 22 Own interpretation · 13 No full text of the sources · 9 Sources not found · 6 No basis given · 3 Not checked yet · 2 Own method
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“By contrast, suppression decreases behavioral expression, but fails to decrease emotion experience, and actually impairs memory.”
- Also stated in: § Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 4 · plain
“Also unlike suppression, reappraisal decreased disgust experience, whereas suppression had no effect on disgust experience.”
- Also stated in: § Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 5 · plain
“It is noteworthy that whereas suppressing negative emotionexpressive behavior has no discernible impact on negative emotion experience ~ e.g., disgust, sadness, embarrassment ! , suppressing positive emotion-expressive behavior does have an impact on positive emotion experience ~ e.g., amusement ! .”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Also stated in: § Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 4 · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“By contrast, reappraisal had no impact on verbal memory.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Relations between suppression and negative emotion expression also followed expectations, with suppression being associated with lesser negative emotion expressive behavior.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Reappraisal, by contrast, was associated with greater positive emotion experience and expression, and lesser negative emotion experience and expression.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Reappraisal decreases emotion experience and behavioral expression, and has no impact on memory.”
- Also stated in: § Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 4 · plain
“Also unlike suppression, reappraisal decreased disgust experience, whereas suppression had no effect on disgust experience.”
- Also stated in: § Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Individual-Difference Data · p. 5 · plain
“Reappraisal, by contrast, was associated with greater positive emotion experience and expression, and lesser negative emotion experience and expression.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Also stated in: § Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 4 · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“we found that individuals who scored higher on either of the two suppression scales reported having worse memory that those who scored lower on these suppression scales”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“By contrast, suppression decreases behavioral expression, but fails to decrease emotion experience, and actually impairs memory.”
- Also stated in: § Cognitive Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 6 · hedged
“As predicted, results indicated that suppression led to reliable decrements ~ compared to the control condition ! in both objective memory and memory confidence ratings.”
- Also stated in: § Cognitive Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 6 · plain
“As predicted, suppression participants performed less well on the verbal memory test than control participants.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Also stated in: § Cognitive Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 6 · hedged
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“They also performed worse on an objective memory test in which they were asked to recall events they had listed in a daily diary 1 week earlier.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Unlike suppression, however, reappraisal had no observable consequences in terms of sympathetic activation of the cardiovascular or electrodermal systems.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Importantly, suppression's effect on verbal memory was just as pronounced for the low-emotion as for the high-emotion slides, suggesting that it is the process of engaging in suppression that is cognitively costly, rather than the amount of emotion that is actually suppressed.”
plainn = 76- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- It may state two separate claims as one. 28
- Probably not a substantial claim. 6
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Table 1. Cognitive Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression (Controlling for Neuroticism and Social Desirability)”
- Also stated in: § Cognitive Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 6 · plain
“| Self-reported | - .31 * | - .23 * | .09 |”
- Also stated in: § Cognitive Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 6 · plain
“| Objective | - .33 * | - .27 * | .05 |”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Cognitive Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 6 · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Findings regarding suppression and negative emotion experience were mixed, showing either no effects or positive effects, that is, the more individuals said they suppressed, the more negative emotion they said they felt.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In each case, suppression was associated with negative outcomes, whereas reappraisal was associated with positive outcomes.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Whereas suppress participants showed greater increases in sympathetic activation than watch or reappraise subjects, these latter two groups did not differ from one another.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In each case, suppression was associated with negative outcomes, whereas reappraisal was associated with positive outcomes.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Gross and Levenson ~ 1997 ! found a suppression effect for amusement experience both in a context that predominantly elicited amusement ~ an amusement film ! and in a context in which there were lower levels of amusement ~ a sadness film that evoked a bit of secondary amusement ! .”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Gross and Levenson, 1997 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As expected, suppression decreased nonemotional behavior, and no differences were found between suppress and watch subjects for any of the physiological or experiential variables.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Importantly, however, emotions do not force us to respond in certain ways, they only make it more likely we will do so.”
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Individuals with schizophrenia have decreased emotion-expressive behavior compared with controls, but comparable levels of emotion experience”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Kring & Neale, 1996 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“reappraisal seems to decrease negative emotion experience and expression while either having no impact or actually increasing positive emotion experience and expression”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These latter changes cohere theoretically, and can be described in terms of 'increased sympathetic activation of the cardiovascular system.'”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Such monitoring requires a continual outlay of cognitive resources, reducing the resources available for processing events so that they can later be remembered.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Suppression requires self-monitoring and self-corrective action throughout an emotional event.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The logic of this comparative design hinges on the premise that whereas antecedent-focused forms of emotion regulation ~ such as reappraisal ! principally concern whether or not emotion response tendencies are triggered , response-focused strategies ~ such as suppression ! concern how emotion response tendencies are modulated once they have been triggered .”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Suppression also was associated with poorer social support and lesser use of instrumental and emotional social support coping.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Gross and John ~ in press !
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“reappraisal led to increased activation of lateral prefrontal regions important for cognitive control, and to decreases in activation of the amygdala and medial orbitofrontal cortex”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Ochsner, Bunge, Gross, & Gabrieli, 2002
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Patients with schizophrenia also have well-characterized deficits in social functioning, and lead those interacting with them to feel uncomfortable”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Krause, Steimer, Sanger-Alt, & Wagner, 1989 source
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“suppression seems to be a blunt instrument-one that decreases both negative and positive emotion-expressive behavior, thereby masking important social signals that would otherwise be available to social interaction partners”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the ongoing requirement of monitoring one's own facial expressions and vocal signals could distract the suppressing individual and make them less responsive to the emotional cues of their partner”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“suggest that whereas suppression is cognitively costly, reappraisal is not”
- Also stated in: § Concluding Comment · p. 9 · hedged
“Suppression also consumes cognitive resources, impairing memory for information presented during the emotion regulation period. Reappraisal, by contrast, appears to have no such cognitive consequences.”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The suppression and reappraisal constructs measured as habitual individual differences are the same constructs manipulated in the laboratory experiments.
- Also stated in: § Concluding Comment · p. 9 · hedged
In the paper
“Similarly, Harris ~ 2001 ! has found that suppressing visible signs of embarrassment leads to enhanced blood pressure responses, but does not affect emotion experience reports.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Harris, 2001 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Compared with the no soundtrack condition, participants who heard the soundtrack had lower skin conductance levels and more pleasant mood ratings.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Lazarus & Alfert, 1964 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Theorists since Darwin ~ 1872 0 1998 ! have maintained that emotionexpressive behavior plays an important role in facilitating social interactions.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Campos, Mumme, Kermoian, & Campos, 1994 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“over half of the nonsubstance related Axis I clinical disorders and all of the Axis II personality disorders involve some form of emotion dysregulation”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Gross & Levenson, 1997 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Individuals increase, maintain, and decrease negative and positive emotions ~ Parrott, 1993 ! .”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Parrott, 1993
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Suppression also increases electrodermal responding and blood pressure, and decreases finger pulse amplitude, finger temperature, and pulse transit times.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Gross, 1998a
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Gross & Levenson, 1993, 1997
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This would make costly self-regulation unnecessary, leaving memory intact.”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Taken together, these findings concerning suppression suggest decreases in positive emotion experience, but the physiological effects of suppression are not clear.”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“suggesting that the cognitive costs of suppression are due to the verbal demands of self-instructions issued during the course of suppression ~ e.g., 'I need to keep my face still' ! .”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: Suppression requires self-monitoring and self-corrective action throughout an emotional event.
In the paper
“Diverse forms of self-regulation result in similar kinds of 'ego depletion,' which suggests that a common resource may be consumed in diverse forms of regulation”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Baumeister, Bratslavsky, Muraven, & Tice, 1998 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“suppression appears to have little impact on negative emotion experience, while decreasing positive emotion experience”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper relies on this without support.
Suppression requires self-monitoring and self-corrective action throughout an emotional event.
“Suppression is a form of emotion regulation that requires selfmonitoring and self-corrective action throughout an emotional event.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Emotions involve coordinated behavioral, experiential, and physiological response tendencies.
“In either case, emotions call forth a coordinated set of behavioral, experiential, and physiological response tendencies that together influence how we respond to perceived challenges and opportunities.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The personal meaning assigned to a situation strongly influences which experiential, behavioral, and physiological response tendencies are generated.
“The personal meaning that is assigned to the situation is crucial because it powerfully influences which experiential, behavioral, and physiological response tendencies will be generated in that particular situation.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The suppression and reappraisal constructs measured as habitual individual differences are the same constructs manipulated in the laboratory experiments.
“These individual-difference findings converge with the results of our experimental studies, and suggest that whereas suppression is cognitively costly, reappraisal is not.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The cited source doesn’t support the claim as written.
In the citing paper
“In the last two decades clinicians have shown that mindfulness training can improve emotional disorders [74] and negative mood [75] and reduce physiological responses such as skin conductance [76] and amygdala activity [67].”
From Mindful emotion regulation: Exploring the neurocognitive mechanisms behind mindfulness (2015) · cites this paper as [74]
Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“some models of emotions distinguish between antecedent-focused and response-focused emotion regulation strategies, based on the differential processing of internal and external emotional cues [65–68].”
From The empirical status of the "new wave" of cognitive behavioral therapy (2010) · cites this paper as [66]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“In addition, the recognition performance of emotional stimuli seems to be unaffected by emotional reappraisal (see [9,28] but see [29]), whereas suppression leads to impaired recognition [8,9].”
From Effects of differential strategies of emotion regulation (2019) · cites this paper as [9]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“We used similar instructions as Gross and colleagues to induce suppression (e.g., Gross & Levenson, 1997), and we replicated their earlier findings, suggesting that our experimental manipulation worked (Gross, 1998, 2002; Gross & Levenson, 1997).”
From How to handle anxiety: The effects of reappraisal, acceptance, and suppression strategies on anxious arousal (2009) · cites this paper as Gross, 2002
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Laboratory based studies of cognitive change report psychological benefits from instructing participants to reappraise emotional stimuli or tasks in a manner designed to diminish personal identification and increase objectivity before the individuals encounter the stimuli or task”
From United we stand: emphasizing commonalities across cognitive-behavioral therapies. (2013) · cites this paper as Gross, 2002
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“to achieve a common goal of behavioral adaptation, CBTs share change principles that target responding at different points along an emotional trajectory (Gross, 2002), including context engagement which can be seen as encompassing therapeutic processes of behavioral exposure and behavioral activation; attention change, which can be seen as encompassing therapeutic processes of attention training”
From United we stand: emphasizing commonalities across cognitive-behavioral therapies. (2013) · cites this paper as Gross, 2002
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Within this framework, the process model differentiates emotion regulation strategies according to the time they intervene in the unfolding emotional response: we can distinguish between antecedent-focused strategies, which are used before the emotion response tendencies become active, and response-focused strategies, which are used once the response tendencies are generated [56,60,61].”
From Interoceptive Ability and Emotion Regulation in Mind–Body Interventions: An Integrative Review (2024) · cites this paper as [60]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Cognitive reappraisal is an effective emotion regulation strategy (Gross, 2002), that has been demonstrated to facilitate emotion regulation in healthy and psychiatric cohorts.”
From Rt-fMRI neurofeedback-guided cognitive reappraisal training modulates amygdala responsivity in posttraumatic stress disorder (2020) · cites this paper as Gross, 2002
In the citing paper
“Emotion regulation therapy (ERT) is one approach to combining CBTs and MBIs that addresses sequencing by targeting the refractory negative emotionality and resulting negative self-referentiality that characterizes distress disorders [75] by first addressing attention change techniques”
From All together now: utilizing common functional change principles to unify cognitive behavioral and mindfulness-based therapies (2019) · cites this paper as [81]
In the citing paper
“Taken together, this suggests that the generation of compassion in response to distressing situations is distinct from other emotion regulation strategies, such as suppression or reappraisal, which involve an active downregulation of negative affect (Gross, 2002).”
From Differential pattern of functional brain plasticity after compassion and empathy training (2014) · cites this paper as Gross, 2002
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Social Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 7
“We asked unacquainted pairs of women to watch an upsetting film, and then discuss their reactions ~ Butler, Egloff, Wilhelm, Smith, & Gross, 2002 ! .”
§ REFERENCES · p. 10
“Butler, E. A., Egloff, B., Wilhelm, F. H., Smith, N. C., & Gross, J. J. ~ 2001 ! . The social consequences of emotion regulation . Manuscript under review.”
Citations
Cites
Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change
Bandura, A. (1977) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.84.2.191 · Cited by 43,925
“Stress: appraisal and coping,”
Folkman, S. (2013) · Encyclopedia of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-1005-9_215 · Cited by 27,833
The expression of the emotions in man and animals.
Darwin, C. D. (1872) · J. Murray eBooks · doi:10.1037/10001-000 · Cited by 12,120
Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change
Bandura, A. (1978) · Advances in Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/0146-6402(78)90002-4 · Cited by 10,586
The emerging field of emotion regulation: an integrative review
Gross, J. J. (1998) · Review of General Psychology · doi:10.1037/1089-2680.2.3.271 · Cited by 9,916
Self-citationPsychological stress and the coping process
Lazarus, R. S. (1966) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 7,164
Murray, C. J. L., & López, A. D. (1997) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(96)07492-2 · Cited by 7,007
Ego depletion: Is the active self a limited resource?
Baumeister, R. F., Bratslavsky, E., Muraven, M., & Tice, D. M. (1998) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.74.5.1252 · Cited by 5,312
Gross, J. J. (1998) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.74.1.224 · Cited by 4,671
Self-citationProgress on a cognitive-motivational-relational theory of emotion
Lazarus, R. S. (1991) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.46.8.819 · Cited by 3,272
Research works printed but not linked: 11
- Buck, R. W. ~ 1979 ! . Individual differences in non-verbal sending accuracy and electrodermal responding: The externalizing-internalizing dimension. In R. Rosenthal ~ Ed. ! , Skill in non-verbal communication ~ pp. 140170 ! . Cambridge, MA: Oelgeschlager, Gunn & Hain.
- Butler, E. A., Egloff, B., Wilhelm, F. H., Smith, N. C., & Gross, J. J. ~ 2001 ! . The social consequences of emotion regulation . Manuscript under review.
- Clore, G. L. ~ 1994 ! . Why emotions vary in intensity. In P. Ekman & R. J. Davidson ~ Eds. ! , The nature of emotion: Fundamental questions ~ pp. 386-393 ! . New York: Oxford University Press.
- Frijda, N. H. ~ 1986 ! . The emotions . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Gross, J. J., & John, O. P. ~ in press ! . Wise emotion regulation. In L.
- Head, H. ~ 1921 ! . Release function in the nervous system. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London: Biology , 92B , 184-209.
- Jones, H. E. ~ 1950 ! . The study of patterns of emotion expression. In M. Reymert ~ Ed. ! , Feelings and emotions ~ pp. 161-168 ! . New York: McGraw-Hill.
- Leary, M. R. ~ 1986 ! . Affective and behavioral consequences of shyness: Implications for theory, measurement, and research. In W. H. Jones & J. M. Cheek & S. R. Briggs ~ Eds. ! , Shyness: Perspectives on research and treatment ~ pp. 27-38 ! . New York: Plenum Press.
- Levenson, R. W. ~ 1994 ! . Human emotions: A functional view. In P. Ekman & R. J. Davidson ~ Eds. ! , The nature of emotion: Fundamental questions ~ pp. 123-126 ! . New York: Oxford University Press.
- Mauss, I. B., & Gross, J. J. ~ in press ! . Emotion suppression and cardiovascular disease: Is hiding feelings bad for your heart? In L. R. Temoshok, I. Nyklicek, & A. Vingerhoets ~ Eds. ! , Emotions in health promotion and disease . London: Harwood Academic Press.
- Ochsner, K. N., Bunge, S. A., Gross, J. J., Gabrieli, J. D. E. ~ 2002 ! . The neural bases of reappraisal . Manuscript under review.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 601–700 of 4,870
O’Toole, M. S., Jensen, M. B., Fentz, H. N., Zachariae, R., & Hougaard, E. (2014) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-014-9611-2 · Cited by 81
“For instance, expressive suppression has been found to exacerbate negative emotional experiences (Gross 2002), diminish responsiveness to positive events (Gross and Levenson 1997), and to be associated with lower levels of social satisfaction (Srivastava et al. 2009) and general poor well-being…”
BackgroundEmotion regulation mediates age differences in emotions
Yeung, D. Y.-L., Wong, C. K. M., & Lok, D. P. P. (2011) · Aging & Mental Health · doi:10.1080/13607863.2010.536136 · Cited by 97
“On the other hand, suppression inhibits the inner feelings without presenting them through facial expression (Gross, 2002 ).”
BackgroundKrannitz, M. A., Grandey, A. A., Liu, S., & Almeida, D. A. (2015) · Journal of Occupational Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0038763 · Cited by 81
“Laboratory studies have supported the direction of causality such that suppressing emotional expressions causes more physiological arousal than showing felt emotions, beyond the emotion itself (Gross, 2002; Hopp et al., 2010).”
Scharnowski, F., Nicholson, A. A., Pichon, S., Rosa, M. J., Rey, G., Eickhoff, S. B., Ville, D. V. D., Vuilleumier, P. O., & Koush, Y. (2020) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.25001 · Cited by 83
“…regulation models, successful regulation is achieved through the modulation of emotional bottom-up responses by higher-order cognitive topdown processes (Etkin et al., 2015; Gross, 2002; Ochsner et al., 2009; Ochsner et al., 2012; Taylor & Liberzon, 2007; Zilverstand, Parvaz, & Goldstein, 2017).”
BackgroundA computational model based on Gross’ emotion regulation theory
Bosse, T., Pontier, M. A., & Jan Treur, A. (2009) · Cognitive Systems Research · doi:10.1016/j.cogsys.2009.10.001 · Cited by 81
“The idea of this type of validation is that the literature by Gross (1998, 1999, 2001, 2002) is taken as a basis, and is carefully inspected in order to extract qualitative statements about the types of patterns that are expected to occur in emotion regulation processes.”
Kelly, M., Forsyth, J. P., & Karekla, M. (2006) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2005.10.012 · Cited by 84
Heterogeneous Knowledge Transfer in Video Emotion Recognition, Attribution and Summarization
Xu, B., Fu, Y., Jiang, Y.-G., Li, B., & Sigal, L. (2016) · IEEE Transactions on Affective Computing · doi:10.1109/taffc.2016.2622690 · Cited by 125
Emotion Regulation and Its Implications for Leadership
Haver, A., Akerjordet, K., & Furunes, T. (2013) · Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies · doi:10.1177/1548051813485438 · Cited by 88
Stein, D. J., Ives-Deliperi, V. L., & Thomas, K. G. F. (2008) · CNS Spectrums · doi:10.1017/s1092852900013869 · Cited by 80
Morawetz, C., Alexandrowicz, R. W., & Heekeren, H. R. (2016) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/emo0000215 · Cited by 83
“With respect to conceptual frameworks of emotion regulation (e.g., Gross, 2002; Koole, 2009), the findings support the notion that personality and temperamental traits directly affect reappraisal success.”
ResultHabitual exercise is associated with cognitive control and cognitive reappraisal success
Giles, G. E., Cantelon, J. A., Eddy, M. D., Brunyé, T. T., Urry, H. L., Mahoney, C. R., & Kanarek, R. B. (2017) · Experimental Brain Research · doi:10.1007/s00221-017-5098-x · Cited by 86
The affective neuropsychology of confabulation and delusion
Fotopoulou, A. (2009) · Cognitive Neuropsychiatry · doi:10.1080/13546800903250949 · Cited by 81
“For example, although emotion typically enhances memory, trying to suppress the emotional impact of an event may lead to worse memory for the event (Gross, 2002).”
van Gelderen, B. R., Bakker, A. B., Konijn, E. A., & Demerouti, E. (2011) · Anxiety Stress & Coping · doi:10.1080/10615806.2011.560665 · Cited by 88
“Second, suppression seems to be cognitively costly due to the verbal demands of self-instructions in the course of suppressing the unwanted emotions (Gross, 2002).”
BackgroundInfluentialFeldner, M. T., Zvolensky, M. J., Stickle, T. R., Bonn‐Miller, M. O., & Leen‐Feldner, E. W. (2005) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2005.02.003 · Cited by 78
Emotion regulation, conflict resolution, and spillover on subsequent family functioning.
Low, R. S. T., Overall, N. C., Cross, E. J., & Henderson, A. M. E. (2018) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/emo0000519 · Cited by 79
Adrian, M. C., Jenness, J. L., Kuehn, K. S., Smith, M. R., & McLaughlin, K. A. (2019) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579419000543 · Cited by 87
“…the experience and expression of emotions in any of the following ways: (a) changing the prompting event(s) of an emotion, (b) shifting attention away from the emotion or the prompting event, (c) reappraisal of the prompting event, (d) or changing how one responds to the emotion (Gross, 2002).”
BackgroundWillem, C., Gandolphe, M., Roussel, M., Verkindt, H., Pattou, F. N., & Nandrino, J. (2019) · Eating and Weight Disorders - Studies on Anorexia Bulimia and Obesity · doi:10.1007/s40519-019-00738-0 · Cited by 91
Development of a Japanese version of Emotion Regulation Questionnaire
Yoshizu, J., Sekiguchi, R., & 俊彦, 雨. (2013) · JAPANESE JOURNAL OF RESEARCH ON EMOTIONS · doi:10.4092/jsre.20.56 · Cited by 78
Nielson, K., & Lorber, W. (2009) · Neurobiology of Learning and Memory · doi:10.1016/j.nlm.2009.03.002 · Cited by 83
“In addition, the manner in which individuals regulate their emotions can influence physiological, behavioral and cognitive responses to arousal (cf. Gross, 2002).”
Jeon, M., Walker, B. N., & Gable, T. M. (2015) · Applied Ergonomics · doi:10.1016/j.apergo.2015.03.015 · Cited by 90
“, reappraisal-down) is cognitively and socially more effective thansuppression,which isa responsemodulationat thefinal regulation point (Gross, 2002).”
BackgroundGlotzbach, E., Mühlberger, A., Gschwendtner, K. M., Fallgatter, A. J., Pauli, P., & Herrmann, M. J. (2011) · The Open Neuroimaging Journal · doi:10.2174/1874440001105010033 · Cited by 75
“Recent fMRI studies investigated the specific emotion regulation strategy of cognitive reappraisal – which means that an emotional situation is reinterpreted in order to reduce the intensity of an emotion or to alter the emotion itself [9].”
BackgroundEmotion Malleability Beliefs Influence the Spontaneous Regulation of Social Anxiety
Kneeland, E. T., Nolen–Hoeksema, S., Dovidio, J. F., & Gruber, J. (2016) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-016-9765-1 · Cited by 89
Kunze, F., & Menges, J. I. (2017) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/job.2129 · Cited by 77
Frederickson, J., Messina, I., & Grecucci, A. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02054 · Cited by 70
“…to reappraisal, suppression has been negatively associated to the expression of positive emotion, effective interpersonal functioning, and well-being (Gross, 2002; Gross and John, 2003) and it negatively correlates with mental health indicators (Aldao and Nolen-Hoeksema, 2010; Hu et al., 2014).”
BackgroundLoneliness and emotion regulation: implications of having social anxiety disorder
Eres, R., Lim, M. H., Lanham, S., Jillard, C., & Bates, G. W. (2021) · Australian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00049530.2021.1904498 · Cited by 86
“Emotion regulation is the ability to manage, modify, and evaluate one's emotional expression and responses (Gross, 1998, 2002, 2008).”
BackgroundMethodCompare, A., Bigi, R., Orrego, P. S., Proietti, R., Grossi, E., & Steptoe, A. (2013) · Annals of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/s12160-013-9474-x · Cited by 78
“Findings from theories of emotion and self-regulation indicate that expressive suppression increases sympathetic activation of the cardiovascular system [48, 49].”
BackgroundEmotion blocks the path to learning under stereotype threat
Mangels, J. A., Good, C., Whiteman, R. C., Maniscalco, B., & Dweck, C. S. (2011) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nsq100 · Cited by 77
Emotion Regulation and the Cultivation of Political Tolerance
Halperin, E., Pliskin, R., Saguy, T., Liberman, V., & Gross, J. J. (2013) · Journal of Conflict Resolution · doi:10.1177/0022002713492636 · Cited by 76
“This strategy involves changing a situation’s meaning in a way that alters its emotional impact (Gross 2002), and recent empirical evidence suggests that it may also be applicable to intergroup interactions and conflicts (Halperin and Gross 2011; Halperin et al. 2013).”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationPartner Reactions to Work-to-Family Conflict: Cognitive Appraisal and Indirect Crossover in Couples
Green, S. G., Schaefer, R. A. B., Wadsworth, S. M., & Weiss, H. M. (2010) · Journal of Management · doi:10.1177/0149206309349307 · Cited by 74
“It also is important to note that suppressing emotions is oftentimes difficult (Gross, 2002).”
BackgroundReappraising Threat: How to Optimize Performance Under Pressure
Moore, L. J., Vine, S. J., Wilson, M., & Freeman, P. B. (2015) · Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1123/jsep.2014-0186 · Cited by 75
Delahaij, R., & van Dam, K. (2017) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2017.06.021 · Cited by 93
Does the attachment system towards owners change in aged dogs?
Mongillo, P., Pitteri, E., Carnier, P., Gabai, G., Adamelli, S., & Marinelli, L. (2013) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2013.07.011 · Cited by 80
“In addition to a psychological perspective, understanding of attachment requires study of the physiological processes associated with social experience [33-36].”
Messina, I., Sambin, M., Beschoner, P., & Viviani, R. (2016) · Cognitive Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3758/s13415-016-0440-5 · Cited by 83
“Compared to reappraisal, suppression has been negatively associated to the expression of positive emotion, effective interpersonal functioning, and well-being (Gross, 2002; Gross & John, 2003).”
BackgroundBoss, A. D., & Sims, H. P. (2008) · Journal of Managerial Psychology · doi:10.1108/02683940810850781 · Cited by 77
Health Anxiety, Cognitive Coping, and Emotion Regulation: A Latent Variable Approach
Görgen, S. M., Hiller, W., & Witthöft, M. (2013) · International Journal of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/s12529-013-9297-y · Cited by 80
An Integrative Way for Studying Neural Basis of Basic Emotions With fMRI
Gu, S., Wang, F., Cao, C., Wu, E., Tang, Y., & Huang, J. H. (2019) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2019.00628 · Cited by 80
“The reappraisal can also be affected by cognition, therefore, positive reappraisal can induce better moods after stressful situations (Gross, 2002; Ochsner et al., 2002; Troy et al., 2010; Wang et al., 2017).”
BackgroundLeonard, N. R., Jha, A. P., Casarjian, B., Goolsarran, M., Garcia, C., Cleland, C. M., Gwadz, M. V., & Massey, Z. (2013) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00792 · Cited by 74
“…control mechanisms involving engagement of attention and working memory have been proposed to be critical for successful emotion regulation (Gross, 1998, 2002), which includes a sequence of automatic and controlled mental processes that occur prior to the height of emotional,…”
BackgroundEmotional regulation strategies in daily life: the intensity of emotions and regulation choice
Kozubal, M., Szuster, A., & Wielgopolan, A. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1218694 · Cited by 77
“According to the Gross’s model, there are five ERS groups: situation selection, situation modification, attentional deployment, cognitive change and response modulation (Gross, 2012).”
MethodWhat Makes Mindfulness-Based Interventions Effective? An Examination of Common Components
Kropp, A., & Sedlmeier, P. (2019) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-019-01167-x · Cited by 74
The right VLPFC and downregulation of social pain: A TMS study
He, Z., Zhao, J., Shen, J., Muhlert, N., Elliott, R., & Zhang, D. (2019) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.24881 · Cited by 72
“To mitigate the distressing feelings and negative effects elicited by social pain, effective emotion regulation is a helpful and easily feasible solution (Gross, 2002; He et al., 2018; He, Liu, Zhao, Elliott, & Zhang, 2019).”
BackgroundMadsgaard, A., Røykenes, K., Smith‐Strøm, H., & Kvernenes, M. (2022) · BMC Nursing · doi:10.1186/s12912-022-00869-3 · Cited by 76
Wu, Y., Liu, F., Chan, K. Q., Wang, N., Zhao, S., Sun, X., Shen, W., & Wang, Z. (2022) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2022.105669 · Cited by 76
Approaches, Applications, and Challenges in Physiological Emotion Recognition—A Tutorial Overview
Can, Y. S., Mahesh, B., & André, E. (2023) · Proceedings of the IEEE · doi:10.1109/jproc.2023.3286445 · Cited by 81
“Gross [36] proposed the process model of emotion regulation, which is a framework for identifying emotion regulation strategies at several steps involved in emotion generation.”
BackgroundMethodMediating Social Anxiety and Disordered Eating: The Role of Expressive Suppression
McLean, C. P., Miller, N. A., & Hope, D. A. (2006) · Eating Disorders · doi:10.1080/10640260601044485 · Cited by 73
“According to Gross' (1998 , 2002 ) model, strategies that act early in the emotion-generative process have different consequences than those that operate later.”
Rodríguez, A., Rey, B., Clemente, M., Wrzesien, M., & Alcañiz, M. (2015) · Expert systems with applications · doi:10.1016/j.eswa.2014.10.006 · Cited by 73
“…of numerous mental and physical health problems, including borderline personality disorders, depression (Oschner & Gross, 2007), anxiety disorders, social interaction or adaption problems, addictions, violent behavior, and other disruptive behaviors (Davidson, Putnam, & Larson, 2000; Gross, 2002).”
Background(2011) · Dialnet (Universidad de la Rioja) · Cited by 74
Suppression dampens unpleasant emotion faster than reappraisal: Neural dynamics in a Chinese sample
Yuan, J., Long, Q., Ding, N., Lou, Y., Liu, Y., & Yang, J. (2014) · Science China Life Sciences · doi:10.1007/s11427-014-4739-6 · Cited by 74
Conflict at Work, Negative Emotions, and Performance: A Diary Study
Rispens, S., & Demerouti, E. (2016) · Negotiation and Conflict Management Research · doi:10.1111/ncmr.12069 · Cited by 90
“…on emotions, which we suspect often happens after the workday has finished and people have some distance to the (work) situation, depletes resources that are functional for work performance (Gross, 2002; Trougakos, Beal, Green, & Weiss, 2008) and further corroborates our finding of a lagged effect.”
Emotion Regulation Difficulties, Personality, and Problematic Smartphone Use
Horwood, S., & Anglim, J. (2021) · Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking · doi:10.1089/cyber.2020.0328 · Cited by 70
“28 Several meta-analytic reviews 27,29–33 of the effectiveness of emotion regulation strategies have found that effective cognitive reappraisal correlates with positive health outcomes ( r = 0.26) and negatively with negative health outcomes ( r = - 0.20), 32 whereas expressive suppression or…”
InfluentialThe habitual use of emotion regulation strategies in schizophrenia
Perry, Y., Henry, J. D., & Grisham, J. R. (2011) · British Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.2044-8260.2010.02001.x · Cited by 73
“Evidence from non-clinical studies supports the use of cognitive reappraisal over suppression, as it is associated with a more favourable set of cognitive, affective, physiological, and social outcomes (Gross, 2002).”
BackgroundPorter, L. S., Keefe, F. J., Lipkus, I. M., & Hurwitz, H. I. (2005) · Pain · doi:10.1016/j.pain.2005.06.021 · Cited by 73
“Emotional regulation refers to individuals’ efforts to control which emotions they have, when they have them, and how they express them (Gross, 2002).”
BackgroundCriterion and incremental validity of the emotion regulation questionnaire
Ioannidis, C., & Siegling, A. B. (2015) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00247 · Cited by 88
“ER strategies rely on the particularity of the situation and do not assume an intrinsically positive or negative character (Gross, 2002).”
BackgroundTeixeira, A. S., Silva, E., Tavares, D., & Freire, T. (2014) · Child Indicators Research · doi:10.1007/s12187-014-9266-2 · Cited by 72
Allen, L. B., Tsao, J. C. I., Seidman, L. C., Ehrenreich, J. T., & Zeltzer, L. K. (2011) · Cognitive and Behavioral Practice · doi:10.1016/j.cbpra.2011.04.007 · Cited by 77
“A uthor M anuscript A uthor M anuscript A uthor M anuscript A uthor M anuscript attempting to be regulated (Barrett, Rapee, Dadds, & Ryan, 1996; Gross, 2002; Keefe et al., 2001; Zeman, Cassano, Perry-Parrish, & Stegall, 2006).”
BackgroundAmygdala responsiveness to emotional words is modulated by subclinical anxiety and depression
Laeger, I., Dobel, C., Dannlowski, U., Kugel, H., Grotegerd, D., Kissler, J. M., Keuper, K., Eden, A. S., Zwitserlood, P., & Zwanzger, P. (2012) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2012.05.036 · Cited by 80
How the brain heals emotional wounds: the functional neuroanatomy of forgiveness
Ricciardi, E., Rota, G., Sani, L., Gentili, C., Gaglianese, A., Guazzelli, M., & Pietrini, P. (2013) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2013.00839 · Cited by 73
“Cognition is essential for emotions to be generated (Schachter and Singer, 1962) and plays a crucial role in emotional regulation (Gross, 2002) and psychotherapeutic effects (Beauregard, 2007).”
BackgroundBenefits of emotional integration and costs of emotional distancing
Roth, G., Shahar, B., Zohar‐Shefer, Y., Benita, M., Moed, A., Bibi, U., Kanat‐Maymon, Y., & Ryan, R. M. (2017) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/jopy.12366 · Cited by 82
Kelley, N. J., Glazer, J. E., Pornpattananangkul, N., & Nusslock, R. (2018) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2018.11.005 · Cited by 71
“Both experimental and individual differences approaches to exploring the consequences of emotional regulation consistently find that cognitive reappraisal is more effective than expressive suppression (Gross & Thompson, 2007; Gross, 2002; Gross, 2015; Webb, Miles, & Sheeran, 2012).”
Shi, J.-Y., Yao, Y.-H., Zhan, C., Mao, Z., Yin, F., & Zhao, X.-D. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00648 · Cited by 65
Smith, K. V., Wild, J., & Ehlers, A. (2020) · Clinical Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/2167702620902748 · Cited by 85
“Previous research has shown that in high-intensity emotion situations, people tend to prefer disengagement strategies, such as distraction, over engagement strategies, such as reappraisal (i.e., changing what is thought about a situation to decrease its emotional impact; Gross, 2002; Sheppes et al., 2014).”
BackgroundValidation of the Arabic version of the Eating Attitude Test in Lebanon: a population study
Haddad, C., Khoury, C., Salameh, P., Sacre, H., Hallit, R. R., Kheir, N., Obeïd, S., & Hallit, S. R. (2020) · Public Health Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s1368980020002955 · Cited by 75
“ered a healthy emotion regulation strategy(50).”
Chhatwani, M. N., Mishra, S. K., Varma, A., & Rai, H. (2022) · Journal of Business Research · doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2021.12.048 · Cited by 74
Shen, B., & Bai, B. (2022) · Applied Linguistics Review · doi:10.1515/applirev-2020-0103 · Cited by 97
Schuengel, C., & Janssen, C. G. C. (2006) · International review of research in mental retardation · doi:10.1016/s0074-7750(06)32008-3 · Cited by 72
The cognitive consequences of emotion regulation: an ERP investigation.
Deveney, C., & Pizzagalli, D. (2008) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.2007.00641.x · Cited by 74
“…to a number of inquiries on the behavioral, emotional, cognitive, and physiological correlates of different ER strategies (Demaree, Schmeichel, Robinson, & Everhart, 2004; Gross, 1998, 2002; Jackson, Malmstadt, Larson, & Davidson, 2000; Moser, Hajcak, Bukay, & Simons, 2006; Richards & Gross, 2000).”
BackgroundThe effects of emotion regulation strategies on positive and negative affect in early adolescents
Wante, L., Beveren, M. V., Theuwis, L., & Braet, C. (2017) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2017.1374242 · Cited by 83
“It should be acknowledged, however, that the downside of distraction may be that it does neither validate nor allow active elaboration on emotional information, which may be crucial for long-lasting adaptive effects (Gross, 2002; McRae, 2016; Thiruchselvam et al., 2011).”
BackgroundInfluentialNeurocognitive Mechanism of Human Resilience: A Conceptual Framework and Empirical Review
Yao, Z., & Hsieh, S. (2019) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph16245123 · Cited by 84
Using expectation violation models to improve the outcome of psychological treatments
Rief, W., Sperl, M. F. J., Braun-Koch, K., Khosrowtaj, Z., Kirchner, L., Schäfer, L. N., Schwarting, R. K. W., Teige‐Mocigemba, S., & Panitz, C. (2022) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2022.102212 · Cited by 78
Detaching from the negative by reappraisal: the role of right superior frontal gyrus (BA9/32)
Falquez, R., Couto, B., Ibáñez, A. M., Freitag, M. T., Berger, M. C., Arens, E. A., Lang, S., & Barnow, S. (2014) · Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2014.00165 · Cited by 76
“According to Gross’s process model of ER, some regulation strategies might be more protective than others, particularly when they act early in the emotion-generative process (Gross, 1999, 2002).”
The cognitive and affective alexithymia dimensions in the regulation of sympathetic responses
Bermond, B., Bierman, D. J., Cladder, M. A., Moormann, P. P., & Vorst, H. C. M. (2009) · International Journal of Psychophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2009.11.004 · Cited by 75
“Furthermore, it has, been proposed that alexithymia results in increased emotional physiological responses, or increased autonomic baseline levels, which may explain the relationship between alexithymia and psychosomatic complaints (Gross, 2002; Thayer and Brosschot, 2005).”
Lu, Q., Tao, F., Hou, F., Zhang, Z., & Ren, L. (2016) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2016.01.011 · Cited by 69
“The Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (Gross, 2002) was used to measure individual differences in the use of expressive suppression and cognitive reappraisal as ER strategies.”
BackgroundMethodDecentring Emotion Regulation: From Emotion Regulation to Relational Emotion
Burkitt, I. (2017) · Emotion Review · doi:10.1177/1754073917712441 · Cited by 77
“Of the different families of emotion regulation, Gross (2002) has highlighted cognitive change as among the most effective, especially strategies of cognitive reappraisal, because it can be applied early in the process of emotion generation.”
BackgroundHides, L. M., Dingle, G. A., Quinn, C. A., Stoyanov, S. R., Zelenko, O., Tjondronegoro, D., Johnson, D. M., Cockshaw, W. D., & Kavanagh, D. J. (2018) · JMIR mhealth and uhealth · doi:10.2196/11482 · Cited by 77
“Emotion regulation requires the development and integration of several emotion skills such as an awareness of one’s emotional states, directing one’s attention away from the cause of a negative emotion; cognitively reappraising the cause of the negative emotion; and accepting, discharging, or suppressing a negative em…”
BackgroundBacaro, V., Chiabudini, M., Buonanno, C., Bartolo, P. D., Riemann, D. W., Mancini, F., & Baglioni, C. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2020.579107 · Cited by 70
Westermann, S., Kesting, M.-L., & Lincoln, T. M. (2011) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.beth.2011.07.005 · Cited by 73
Latinjak, A. T., Comoutos, N., López‐Ros, V., & Hatzigeorgiadis, A. (2014) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2014.05.007 · Cited by 68
Bridging Intimate Partner Violence and the Human Brain: A Literature Review
Wong, J. Y.-H., Fong, D. Y.-T., Lai, V., & Tiwari, A. (2014) · Trauma, Violence, & Abuse · doi:10.1177/1524838013496333 · Cited by 69
“Emotion dysregulation refers to the loss of control of emotions, which includes decreasing, maintaining, or increasing positive/negative emotional reactions (Gross, 2002).”
BackgroundDiamond, L. M., Hicks, A. M., & Otter-Henderson, K. D. (2011) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167211400620 · Cited by 77
“…defined as internal and transactional processes through which individuals modulate the experience or expression of positive and negative affect (Eisenberg, Fabes, Guthrie, & Reiser, 2000; Gross, 1999), is essential for effective coping, social functioning, and overall mental health (Gross, 2002).”
BackgroundTrumello, C., Babore, A., Candelori, C., Morelli, M., & Bianchi, D. (2018) · BioMed Research International · doi:10.1155/2018/7914261 · Cited by 70
“According to Gross’ process model of emotion regulation [68] and his studies on the affective, cognitive, and social consequences of emotion regulation strategies [32], reappraisal is associated with a greater positive emotion experience and expression and a lesser negative emotion experience than suppression is.”
BackgroundExpressive suppression during an acoustic startle
Hagemann, T., Levenson, R. W., & Gross, J. J. (2006) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.2006.00382.x · Cited by 69
“In our own work, in addition to the commonalities across different types of suppression that we have emphasized here, we have also documented important differences among different families of specific emotion regulation strategies (Gross, 2002).”
BackgroundSelf-citationWoud, M. L., Postma, P., Holmes, E. A., & Mackintosh, B. (2013) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2013.01.003 · Cited by 65
“…body of research investigating the beneficial effects of reappraisal, for example as an emotion-regulation-strategy in healthy participants (Gross, 2002), in clinical contexts such as depression (e.g. Lang, Moulds, & Holmes, 2009) and in analogue posttraumatic-stress (e.g. Woud et al.,…”
BackgroundThe neural bases of cognitive emotion regulation: The roles of strategy and intensity
Moodie, C. A., Suri, G., Goerlitz, D. S., Mateen, M. A., Sheppes, G., McRae, K., Lakhan-Pal, S., Thiruchselvam, R., & Gross, J. J. (2020) · Cognitive Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3758/s13415-020-00775-8 · Cited by 75
Self-citationMansueto, G., Marino, C., Palmieri, S., Offredi, A., Sarracino, D., Sassaroli, S., Ruggiero, G. M., Spada, M. M., & Caselli, G. (2022) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2022.04.086 · Cited by 73
Leconstant, C., & Spitz, É. (2022) · Frontiers in Veterinary Science · doi:10.3389/fvets.2022.656833 · Cited by 72
Ruan, Q.-N., Chen, Y., & Yan, W. (2023) · Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health · doi:10.1186/s13034-023-00574-2 · Cited by 81
Ellenbogen, M. A., Schwartzman, A. E., Stewart, J., & Walker, C.-D. (2005) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2005.09.001 · Cited by 72
“Some theoretical accounts have posited that the effortful allocation of attention and attentional control are important methods of emotion regulation (Derryberry and Reed, 2002; Gross, 2002; Rueda et al., 2004).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialTrait reappraisal is associated with resilience to acute psychological stress
Carlson, J. M., Dikeçligil, G. N., Greenberg, T., & Mujica-Parodi, L. R. (2012) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2012.05.003 · Cited by 69
“…that instructing participants to reappraise negative emotional stimuli decreases reported emotional experience, behavioural expression, physiological responses, and neural activation in emotional structures such as the amygdala and insula (for review see Gross, 2002; Ochsner & Gross, 2005).”
BackgroundSelf-regulatory processes underlying structural stigma and health
Richman, L. S., & Lattanner, M. R. (2014) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2013.12.029 · Cited by 70
Otto, B., Misra, S., Prasad, A. K., & McRae, K. (2014) · Cognitive Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3758/s13415-013-0240-0 · Cited by 75
“Furthermore, the frequent use of reappraisal relates to greater levels of positive emotion, lesser negative emotion, better interpersonal functioning, and higher levels of well-being (Aldao & Nolen-Hoeksema, 2010; Gross & John, 2003; McRae, Jacobs, Ray, John, & Gross, 2012).”
Peters, B. J., & Jamieson, J. P. (2016) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/emo0000202 · Cited by 67
“The process model of emotion regulation considers temporal processes in emotional experiences (Gross, 2002).”
BackgroundMcGinnis, R. S., McGinnis, E. W., Hruschak, J. L., Lopez‐Duran, N. L., Fitzgerald, K. D., Rosenblum, K. L., & Muzik, M. (2019) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0210267 · Cited by 71
Alexithymia and Pain in Three Chronic Pain Samples: Comparing Caucasians and African Americans
Lumley, M. A., Radcliffe, A. M., Macklem, D. J., Mosley‐Williams, A., Leisen, J. C. C., Huffman, J. L., D’Souza, P. J., Gillis, M. E., Meyer, T. M., Kraft, C. A., et al. (2005) · Pain Medicine · doi:10.1111/j.1526-4637.2005.05036.x · Cited by 69
Cognitive control of obsessional thoughts
Grisham, J. R., & Williams, A. D. (2009) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2009.01.014 · Cited by 75
Beyond Dual-Processes: The Interplay of Reason and Emotion in Moral Judgment
Helion, C., & Pizarro, D. A. (2014) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-94-007-4707-4_160 · Cited by 70
An examination of emotion dysregulation in maladaptive perfectionism
Malivoire, B. L., Kuo, J. R., & Antony, M. M. (2019) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2019.04.006 · Cited by 82
Delgado, C., Evans, A. M., Roche, M. A., & Foster, K. (2022) · International Journal of Mental Health Nursing · doi:10.1111/inm.13037 · Cited by 67
Powers, A. D., Etkin, A., Gyurak, A., Bradley, B., & Jovanović, T. (2015) · Psychiatry · doi:10.1080/00332747.2015.1069656 · Cited by 85
“The importance of effective emotion regulation in mental stability and functioning has been shown (for reviews, see Gross, 2002; Gross & Muñoz, 1995).”
BackgroundMethodEmotion regulation in psychopathy
Casey, H., Rogers, R. D., Burns, T., & Yiend, J. (2012) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2012.06.011 · Cited by 67
Schweizer, S., Walsh, N., Stretton, J., Dunn, V. J., Goodyer, I. M., & Dalgleish, T. (2015) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nsv109 · Cited by 69
“In sum, then ER capacity may convey either a risk or resilience factor following mCA, with its neural correlates likely to be expressed in terms of PFC and/or amygdala activation.”
InfluentialNeurobiological Concomitants of Motivational States
Mendes, W. B., & Park, J. (2014) · Advances in motivation science · doi:10.1016/bs.adms.2014.09.001 · Cited by 73
Metadata
- Authors
- Gross, J. J.
- Affiliations
- Stanford University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Gross, James J.
- ORCID
- Gross, James J.
- Venue
- Psychophysiology
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2002-05
- Volume
- 39
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 281-291
- ISSN
- 0048-5772 (ISSN-L)
- 1469-8986
- OpenAlex
- W2128126978
- Cited by
- 4,890
- References
- 73
- Citations by year
- 2026: 341 · 2025: 492 · 2024: 315 · 2023: 314 · 2022: 321 · 2021: 315 · 2020: 273 · 2019: 267 · 2018: 276 · 2017: 254 · 2016: 226 · 2015: 232 · 2014: 233 · 2013: 228 · 2012: 179
- FWCI
- 5.54
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Psychophysiology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (MH 58147)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Emotions and Moral Behavior
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Keywords
- emotion regulation, cognitive reappraisal, expressive suppression, process model of emotion regulation, emotional experience, emotional expression, memory impairment, individual differences
- MeSH terms
- Affect, Cognition, Emotions, Humans, Psychophysiology, Social Behavior
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-01, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-01 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
