Emotion regulation: affective, cognitive, and social consequences.

“Affectively, suppression but not reappraisal leaves negative emotional experience unchanged (see Gross, 2002, for a review), increases sympathetic nervous system activation (e.g., Gross, 1998a; Gross & Levenson, 1993, 1997), and increases activation in emotiongenerative brain regions (Goldin,…”

“taining, or increasing) of positive and negative emotional reactions is termed emotion regulation [Gross, 2002].”

“In the psychology literature, Gross (1998, 2002) has introduced a modal process model of emotion regulation (ER) that elucidates different classes of emotional self-regulation.”

“…2012; Ray et al., 2010; Urry, van Reekum, Johnstone, & Davidson, 2009); and through observation of emotion-related behaviors such as overt physical expression of emotion (Gross, 1998a, 2002), risk-taking (Park & Lee, 2011), and reaction times during interpersonal evaluation (Blechert et al., 2012).”

“Suppression has little impact on unpleasant emotions, and it also ‘‘consumes cognitive resources, impairing memory for information presented during the emotion regulation period’’ (Gross 2002, p. 289).”

“Emotion regulation strategies play a key role in mastering complex social interactions and the emotions they evoke (Gross and John, 2003; Gross, 2002; Ochsner et al., 2002), an important component of which are social cognitive skills.”

“Emotion regulation refers to individuals’ attempts to influence their emotions (Gross, 2002).”

“Given that these two emotion-regulation strategies function at different points in the emotion-generative process, they also have different implications for various aspects of an individual’s personal and social life (Gross, 2002; Gross & John, 2003; Lopes, Salovey, & Straus, 2003).”

“Among emotion regulation strategies, cognitive reappraisal offers many benefits, appearing effective in the short-term and psychologically healthy in the long-term (Gross, 2002; Gross & John, 2003).”

“More specifically with regards to reappraisal, Gross argues that appraisal processes occur early in the emotion-generative process, and the downstream outcome (the experienced emotion) is most easily altered by changing appraisals of the meaning of internal states (Gross, 2002).”

“Reappraisal is a conscious change in the way an emotional stimulus is interpreted, initiated in order to change its emotion-eliciting character (Gross, 2002).”

“For example, the substantial psychosocial literature on the taxonomy and function of coping (e.g., Bandura, 1977; Gross, 2002; Lazarus, 1966; Scherer, Schor, & Johnstone, 2001) has provided grist for hypothesis generation that has been highly fruitful in understanding the neural mechanisms…”

“Psychological stress responses include specific emotions triggered by the stressor, as well as efforts to regulate that emotion (Gross, 2002).”

“Use of cognitive reappraisal affects the early stages of the emotion-generative process and therefore decreases both the experience and the behavioral expression of emotion, while other strategies acting later in the emotion-generative process, such as suppression, affect only behavioral expression without changing th…”

“Confirming evidence about the central role of cognitive appraisals in emotions comes from the growing emotion regulation literature (Gross, 2002).”

“Such learning reinforces emotion regulation (i.e., individuals’ ability to modify which emotions they feel, as well as when and how such emotions are experienced and expressed) (Gross, 2002; Mikulincer, Shaver, Sapir-Lavid, & Avihou-Kanza, 2009).”

“Another study by Ochsner et al. (2002) investigated the neural correlates of reappraisal, a type of cognitive strategy that proposes that an individual can change their emotional reaction by reevaluating the situation in a less negative context (Gross, 2002).”

“Common definitions of ER relate to the way in which humans control their experience and expression of emotion under distress by employing strategies such as suppression, repression and cognitive reappraisal (Gross, 2002).”

“…to relevant aspects of experience in a nonjudgmental manner” (Ludwig & Kabat-Zinn, 2008) and differs from conventional emotional regulation strategies such as cognitive reappraisal, which relies on memory and evaluation to re-interpret negative experiences (Gross, 2002; Ochsner et al., 2004).”

“Although the number of emotion regulation strategies is potentially limitless [42], examples of both adaptive and maladaptive strategies include reappraisal, problem solving, acceptance, avoidance, rumination and suppression [41].”

“Emotional responding on the behavioral as well as the physiological level has been conceptualized as a product of both emotional reactivity and cognitive processes of emotion regulation, including reappraisal and suppression [Gross 1998, 2002].”

“However, the direction of effect chosen here is consistent with models of emotional labor (Grandey, 2000) and has been demonstrated in experimental research (e.g., Gross, 2002).”

“Generally, it is agreed that healthy ER is characterized by the successful up-regulation of positive emotions and down-regulation of negative emotions [Gross, 2002; Giuliani, McRae, & Gross, 2008; Ochsner et al., 2004].”

“However, seeing others’ frustration may have helped them regulate their emotion of frustration since social interactions are critical in one’s emotional experience (Gross, 2002).”

“Research on emotion regulation strategies further indicates that some stimuli may be too emotionally intense for an empathic response to suffice, and instead, receivers may seek explanations to reappraise the situation (Gross 2002).”

“Emotion regulation research has found ample evidence that a voluntary and consciously controlled form of reappraisal (reinterpretation) can attenuate aversive emotional reactions (Gross, 2002), including peripheral and neural reactivity to pain (Kalisch et al., 2005).”

“The present research concentrates on the response-focused strategy of suppression (Gross, 1998a, 2002), referred to here as the hidden emotion facet of teachers' emotional lives.”

“Currently, emotions are considered to be processes involving multiple components arising from experiential, behavioral, and physiologi- cal systems; emotion regulation involves unconscious and conscious attempts to modify any of these processes (Gross, 2002).”

“…has not fully unfolded and they try to alter the negativity of an event itself, whereas response-focused strategies such as Expressive Suppression often fail in controlling the emotional experience since they are initiated later in the emotion-generative process (for a review see Gross, 2002).”

“…(Purdon, 1999), by increasing the rate, intensity, and accessibility of the very thoughts and moods it is directed against (Wegner, Schneider, Carter, & White 1987), as well as intensifying sympathetic nervous system activity (Gross 2002; Gross & Levenson 1993; Wenzlaff & Wegner 2000).”

“Finally, the study shows that in China’s online market, attitude toward online shopping can play a mediating role in the relationship between the internal influences of the stimulus and repurchase intention, as extant studies have shown (e.g., Ajzen 1991; Gross 2002; Kim and Park 2005; Park et al. 2013).”

“Alternatively, this emotion regulation strategy could be considered to be a partially efficient way to react to emotional situations (Gross, 2002) when compared with complete emotional appraisal.”

“The intrapersonal model of emotion regulation (e.g., Gross 2002; Gross and John 2003; Gross and Levenson 1997) has made an important contribution to the clinical field (Aldao et al. 2010).”

“…(e.g., Nolen-Hoeksema, 1987, 1991); (d) cognitive change strategies such as cognitive reappraisal, which is defined as construing a potentially emotion-eliciting situation in nonemotional terms (e.g., Gross, 2002; Gross & John, 2003; Richards & Gross, 2000); and (e) response modulation strategies.”

“More generally, cognitive reappraisal has been shown to have salutary effects on experience, physiological responding, and behavior, without some of the costs associated with other regulatory strategies, such as expressive suppression ( Gross, 1998, 2002 ).”

“cognitive reappraisal, as critical to psychological health and wellbeing (Gross, 2002; Ochsner & Gross, 2005).”

“That is, cognitive reframing, a core CBT cognitive restructuring approach, generally decreases the intensity and behavioral expression of negative emotion and does not produce the same counterproductive effects as suppression (see Gross, 2002).”

“…myriad other indicators of positive social functioning including adaptive attachment style, greater peer-rated likeability and sharing of emotions (Gross, 2002; Gross & John, 2003; John & Gross, 2004), greater social support, closeness to others, and social satisfaction (Salvatore, Kuo, Steele,…”

“An integrated perspective strongly implies not only that emotion should be able to modulate cognitive control, but also the reverse: that cognitive control should be able to modulate emotion (cf. Gross, 2002; Salovey et al., 2002).”

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“Sometimes it can be useful for people to hide or suppress facial expressions in order to portray external facial expressions that don’t reflect internal feeling states (Gross, 2002).”

“Such an ability could have widespread and profound implications for pain and emotion regulation as well as cognitive control; theories of which postulate is achieved though frontal activation [17,24,38], rather than disengagement as suggested here.”

“Moreover, an influential theory of emotion regulation theory (Gross, 1998, 2002) has emphasized different types of strategies (e.g., antecedent- and response-focused), but the latter do not make specific reference to interpersonal emotion situations.”

“In contrast, reappraisal—as an antecedentfocused regulation strategy—should take effect before the emotion response tendencies have been triggered (Gross, 2002).”

“In fact, laboratory studies of suppression of thoughts and emotions show that the more one tries to avoid these phenomena, the more likely one is to experience them (Clark, Ball, & Pape, 1991; Gross, 2002; Gross & John, 2003).”

“The important role of acceptance in decreasing the emotional distress and sympathetic activation associated with pain and other unpleasant symptomatology has received increased research focus and clinical attention [29,41,59].”

“free emotion regulation strategy ( Gross, 2002, Rich ards, 2004).”

“Research on reappraising arousal has extended work on emotion regulation (Gross, 1998, 2002) and cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT; Hofmann & Smits, 2008).”

“Gross (2002) defines emotion regulation as the process by which people influence which emotions they have, when they have them, and how they experience and express these emotions.”

“Previous studies of emotion regulation have often used a strategy known as reappraisal, in which individuals attempt to decrease their emotional response to stimuli by reinterpreting an emotional stimulus in a manner that renders it less emotionally arousing (Gross, 2002; Jackson et al., 2000; Ochsner et al., 2002, 20…”

“In this model, different strategies for regulating emotions appear at different times during an emotional response (Gross, 2002), with antecedent-and response-focused strategies appearing, respectively, before full activation of the emotional response and when an emotion is already in progress.”

“The mean percent signal hange was calculated using anatomical regions of interest for the mygdala and a 3 mm sphere centered on the coordinate (38, 10, 8) erived from the whole-brain analysis.”

“…from research showing that suppression of emotional expression increases physiological activity, negatively influences later efforts at self-regulation, and generally is perceived as more difficult than other forms of emotion regulation (Baumeister et al., 1998; Butler et al., 2003; Gross, 2002).”

“Emotion regulation can be aimed at reducing, strengthening, or maintaining the experience of either positive or negative emotions depending on the current needs or goals of an individual (Gross, 1998, 2002, 2014; Aldao, 2013).”

“…emotional activation but nonetheless report less frequent use of reappraisal, extends previous research which has found low reappraisal frequency to be linked with negative affect, fearfulness, and worries in non-clinical samples (Garnefski, Rieffe, Jellesma, Terwogt, & Kraaij, 2007; Gross, 2002).”

“These attempts at emotion regulation have been shown to impact both intra- and interpersonal functioning (Gross, 2002).”

“Thus, when employees engage in deep acting to conform to these display rules, it should result in more positive emotional experiences for the employee (Grandey, 2000; Gross, 2002).”

“…defining and differentiating emotion and emotion regulation is difficult even though some authors have recently begun to formulate core features of these concepts (Gross, 2002; Gross & Thompson, 2007; see Bloch, Moran, & Kring, 2009, for a discussion of different definitions of emotion regulation).”

“Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 8 December 2020 | Volume 11 | Article 603420 Emotion regulation refers to a process by which individuals can influence the course and expression of their emotions (Gross, 1998, 2002), and it is essential for maintaining a healthy life.”

“In a teaching context, which involves constant management of interpersonal relationships, teachers who possess greater emotion regulation capabilities are predicted to experience less stress and burnout (Gross, 2002; Montgomery & Rupp, 2005).”

“Furthermore, it does not increase physiological arousal during emotionally charged events (Gross & Levenson, 1993, 1997) and has been viewed as adaptive for processing memories and integrating new experiences (Ehlers & Clark, 2000; Gross, 2002).”

“Whereas reappraisal (e.g., Eippert et al., 2007; Gross, 1998, 2002; Ochsner et al., 2002) and distraction (e.g., Antony et al., 2001; Craske et al., 1991) are considered intentional and often effective forms of emotion regulation, affect labeling is relatively unintentional (Lieberman, 2011), and…”

“Reappraisal is a process of reinterpreting the meaning of a stimulus leading to a change in one’s emotional response to it [9].”

“Specifically, in the following sections we show that previous studies have established that reappraisal – construing an emotional situation in non emotional terms -has no physiological or cognitive costs (see Gross, 2002; Richards, 2004, for reviews).”

“It is now common to think that cognitive reappraisal is typically more adaptive than expressive suppression (Gross, 2002); however, findings from several experimental studies reveal only that reappraisal is more effective in reducing self-report of negative emotions and physiological arousal in response to a video cli…”

“Previous studies suggest that cognitive reappraisal is a strategy that is highly effective in downregulating negative emotions in TD individuals and predicts positive long-term outcomes [e.g. Bower et al., 2005; Gross, 2002].”

“In fact, people are capable of altering the context of emotion by changing the way they think about emotional information, that is, by changing the meaning attributed to emotional stimuli; this process has been referred to as cognitive reappraisal (cf. Gross, 1998, 2002).”

“Antecedent ER strategies (Gross 2002) are said to improve emotions by altering the situation or the interpretation of the emotional material one is exposed to before the emotion itself is experienced.”

“Emotion regulation is defined as the use of cognitive or behavioral strategies in order to modify the circumstances in which an emotion occurs, the experience of an emotional response (including its intensity and duration), or the way in which an emotion is overtly expressed (Gross 2002).”

“Metacognitive strategies aim to down regulate the impact of distressing mental imagery via reappraisal (Gross, 2002).”