Rejection elicits emotional reactions but neither causes immediate distress nor lowers self-esteem: a meta-analytic review of 192 studies on social exclusion

Blackhart, Ginette C.; Nelson, Brian C.; Knowles, Megan L.; Baumeister, Roy F.

doi:10.1177/1088868309346065

Cited by 504Death Anxiety and Social ExclusionBullying, Victimization, and AggressionSocial and Intergroup Psychology

Rejection elicits emotional reactions but neither causes immediate distress nor lowers self-esteem: a meta-analytic review of 192 studies on social exclusion

Blackhart, Ginette C., Nelson, Brian C., Knowles, Megan L., Baumeister, Roy F.·2009·Personality and Social Psychology Review

DOI 10.1177/1088868309346065

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Abstract

Competing predictions about the effect of social exclusion were tested by meta-analyzing findings from studies of interpersonal rejection, ostracism, and similar procedures. Rejection appears to cause a significant shift toward a more negative emotional state. Typically, however, the result was an emotionally neutral state marked by low levels of both positive and negative affect. Acceptance caused a slight increase in positive mood and a moderate increase in self-esteem. Self-esteem among rejected persons was no different from neutral controls. These findings are discussed in terms of belongingness motivation, sociometer theory, affective numbing, and self-esteem defenses.

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Inclusion and diversity in work groups: A review and model for future research
Shore, L. M., Randel, A. E., Chung, B. G., Dean, M. A., Holcombe Ehrhart, K., & Singh, G. (2011) · Journal of Management · doi:10.1177/0149206310385943 · Cited by 2,135 · see citing works
Some key differences between a happy life and a meaningful life
Baumeister, R. F., Vohs, K. D., Aaker, J. L., & Garbinsky, E. N. (2013) · The Journal of Positive Psychology · doi:10.1080/17439760.2013.830764 · Cited by 1,006 · see citing works
Self-citation
The Ordinal Effects of Ostracism: A Meta-Analysis of 120 Cyberball Studies
Hartgerink, C. H. J., van Beest, I., Wicherts, J. M., & Williams, K. D. (2015) · PLOS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0127002 · Cited by 558 · see citing works
“This initial response is theorized to be socially painful, threatening [9] and, following overdetection theory [12], should be easily detectable due to evolutionary over-sensitivity to cues of ostracism.”
Social Exclusion Causes People to Spend and Consume Strategically in the Service of Affiliation
Mead, N. L., Baumeister, R. F., Stillman, T. F., Rawn, C. D., & Vohs, K. D. (2010) · Journal of Consumer Research · doi:10.1086/656667 · Cited by 553 · see citing works
“Self-esteem scores did not differ as a function of the exclusion manipulation (t ! 1; for a review of similar findings see Blackhart et al. [2009]).”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Invisible at Work
Robinson, S. L., O’Reilly, J., & Wang, W. (2012) · Journal of Management · doi:10.1177/0149206312466141 · Cited by 523 · see citing works
“Social rejection has been defined as “when one person seeks to form and maintain at least a temporary alliance or relationship with someone else and that other person says no (at least implicitly)” (Blackhart et al., 2009: 270).”
Background
Threat and Defense
Jonas, E., McGregor, I., Klackl, J., Agroskin, D., Fritsche, I., Holbrook, C., Nash, K., Proulx, T., & Quirin, M. (2014) · Advances in Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-800052-6.00004-4 · Cited by 447 · see citing works
Conspicuous Consumption versus Charitable Behavior in Response to Social Exclusion: A Differential Needs Explanation
Lee, J., & Shrum, L. J. (2012) · Journal of Consumer Research · doi:10.1086/664039 · Cited by 426 · see citing works
“Research on social exclusion has used many manipulations to induce feelings of social exclusion (Blackhart et al. 2009).”
Influential
Is Negative Attention Better Than No Attention? The Comparative Effects of Ostracism and Harassment at Work
O’Reilly, J., Robinson, S. L., Berdahl, J. L., & Banki, S. (2014) · Organization Science · doi:10.1287/orsc.2014.0900 · Cited by 322 · see citing works
Settling for less out of fear of being single.
Spielmann, S. S., MacDonald, G., Maxwell, J. A., Joel, S., Peragine, D. E., Muise, A., & Impett, E. A. (2013) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0034628 · Cited by 316 · see citing works
Inclusive leadership: how leaders sustain or discourage work group inclusion
Shore, L. M., & Chung, B. G. (2022) · Group & Organization Management · doi:10.1177/1059601121999580 · Cited by 303 · see citing works
Ostracism, Self-Esteem, and Job Performance: When Do We Self-Verify and When Do We Self-Enhance?
Ferris, D. L., Lian, H., Brown, D. J., & Morrison, R. L. (2014) · Academy of Management Journal · doi:10.5465/amj.2011.0347 · Cited by 290 · see citing works
Associations between minority stress, depression, and suicidal ideation and attempts in transgender and gender diverse (TGD) individuals: Systematic review and meta-analysis
Pellicane, M. J., & Ciesla, J. A. (2021) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2021.102113 · Cited by 281 · see citing works
How to boost positive interpretations? A Meta-Analysis of the effectiveness of cognitive bias modification for interpretation
Menne-Lothmann, C., Viechtbauer, W., Höhn, P., Kasanova, Z., Haller, S. P., Drukker, M., van Os, J., Wichers, M., & Lau, J. Y. F. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0100925 · Cited by 235 · see citing works
“In contrast, continuous variation in mood states not only may be used to characterize the common symptom ‘low mood’ of anxiety and depression but also can be measured reliably in general population samples [15,16], particularly in response to emotional challenges [17].”
Background
Respect in Organizations: Feeling Valued as “We” and “Me”
Rogers, K. M., & Ashforth, B. E. (2014) · Journal of Management · doi:10.1177/0149206314557159 · Cited by 228 · see citing works
Validation of the ostracism experience scale for adolescents
Gilman, R., Carter-Sowell, A., DeWall, C. N., Adams, R. E., & Carboni, I. (2013) · Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1037/a0030913 · Cited by 221 · see citing works
Social Exclusion and Pain Sensitivity
Bernstein, M. J., & Claypool, H. M. (2011) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167211422449 · Cited by 197 · see citing works
Social Exclusion: More Important to Human Females Than Males
Benenson, J. F., Markovits, H., Hultgren, B. A., Nguyen, T. A. T., Bullock, G., & Wrangham, R. W. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0055851 · Cited by 193 · see citing works
“While generally the two sexes report similar levels of distress in response to social exclusion [30], when sex differences are found, females report more distress than males [33].”
BackgroundResult
Twitter versus Facebook: Comparing incivility, impoliteness, and deliberative attributes
Öz, M., Zheng, P., & Chen, G. M. (2017) · New Media & Society · doi:10.1177/1461444817749516 · Cited by 198 · see citing works
“In each analysis, political beliefs was added as a covariate, as explained above, and gender was used as an additional factor because prior research has shown that men and women differ in regard to aversive speech, such as incivility and impoliteness (e.g. Blackhart et al., 2009).”
Method
Self-esteem is dominated by agentic over communal information
Wojciszke, B., Baryla, W., Parzuchowski, M., Szymkow, A., & Abele, A. E. (2011) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.791 · Cited by 175 · see citing works
“…a recent meta-analysis showed that although social acceptance increases self-esteem, social rejection does not generally decrease self-esteem compared to neutral conditions (Blackhart et al., 2009) and it is not that clear whether the rejection is based on communal or agentic considerations.”
Background
Combating the Sting of Rejection With the Pleasure of Revenge: A New Look at How Emotion Shapes Aggression
Chester, D., & DeWall, C. (2017) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/pspi0000080 · Cited by 155 · see citing works
The dark side of meaning-making: How social exclusion leads to superstitious thinking
Graeupner, D., & Coman, A. (2017) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2016.10.003 · Cited by 162 · see citing works
A social-attributional analysis of alcohol response.
Fairbairn, C. E., & Sayette, M. A. (2014) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0037563 · Cited by 149 · see citing works
Being “In” With the In-Crowd: The Effects of Social Exclusion and Inclusion Are Enhanced by the Perceived Essentialism of Ingroups and Outgroups
Bernstein, M. J., Sacco, D. F., Young, S. G., Hugenberg, K., & Cook, E. (2010) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167210376059 · Cited by 141 · see citing works
No Herd for Black Sheep: A Meta‐Analytic Review of the Predictors and Outcomes of Workplace Ostracism
Bedi, A. (2019) · Applied Psychology · doi:10.1111/apps.12238 · Cited by 132 · see citing works
State, not trait, neuroendocrine function predicts costly reactive aggression in men after social exclusion and inclusion
Geniole, S. N., Carré, J. M., & McCormick, C. M. (2011) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2011.02.020 · Cited by 129 · see citing works
“Psychologists from a broad array of theoretical perspectives concur on the importance of social relationships for humans, with affiliation considered a basic human drive (Baumeister and Leary, 1995; Blackhart et al., 2009).”
Writing a Literature Review
Baumeister, R. F. (2012) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-3994-3_8 · Cited by 129 · see citing works
Self-citation
Psychological Models of Suicide
Barzilay, S., & Apter, A. (2014) · Archives of Suicide Research · doi:10.1080/13811118.2013.824825 · Cited by 131 · see citing works
“, 2009; Melhem, Brent, Ziegler et al., 2007). Many studies reported a link between impulsivity and suicide (Brodsky, Malone, Ellis et al., 1997; Kingsbury, Hawton, Steinhardt et al., 1999; Mann, Waternaux, Haas et al., 1999; Nock & Kessler, 2006) including evidence that impulsive-aggressive suicide is more common amon…”
Background
Workplace ostracism and deviant and helping behaviors: The moderating role of 360 degree feedback
Peng, A. C., & Zeng, W. (2016) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/job.2169 · Cited by 134 · see citing works
Why am I ostracized and how would I react? — A review of workplace ostracism research
Mao, Y., Liu, Y., Jiang, C., & Zhang, I. D. (2017) · Asia Pacific Journal of Management · doi:10.1007/s10490-017-9538-8 · Cited by 126 · see citing works
Social Exclusion in Everyday Life
Wesselmann, E. D., Grzybowski, M. R., Steakley-Freeman, D. M., DeSouza, E., Nezlek, J. B., & Williams, K. D. (2016) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-33033-4_1 · Cited by 122 · see citing works
Motivations for responses to ostracism
Wesselmann, E. D., Ren, D., & Williams, K. D. (2015) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00040 · Cited by 120 · see citing works
Social life and social death: Inclusion, ostracism, and rejection in groups
Wesselmann, E. D., & Williams, K. D. (2017) · Group Processes & Intergroup Relations · doi:10.1177/1368430217708861 · Cited by 121 · see citing works
“Since then, several books (Abrams, Hogg, & Marques, 2004; DeWall, 2013; Leary, 2001; Riva & Eck, 2016; Williams, 2001; Williams, Forgas, & von Hippel, 2005; Williams & Nida, 2017), review articles (DeWall & Richman, 2011; Leary, Twenge, & Quinlivan, 2006; Levine & Kerr, 2007; Williams, 2007, 2009; Williams & Nida, 201…”
Emotional regulation as a mediator between interpersonal mistreatment and distress
Adams, G. A., & Webster, J. R. (2012) · European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1080/1359432x.2012.698057 · Cited by 119 · see citing works
“For interpersonal mistreatment by customers and coworkers, this is consistent with our logic that workers may engage in surface acting in order to maintain valued social relationships (Blackhart et al., 2009).”
Result
Me, us, and them: Testing sociometer theory in a socially diverse real-life context.
Reitz, A. K., Motti‐Stefanidi, F., & Asendorpf, J. B. (2015) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/pspp0000073 · Cited by 118 · see citing works
Not all social exclusions are created equal: Emotional distress following social exclusion is moderated by exclusion paradigm
Bernstein, M., & Claypool, H. M. (2012) · Social Influence · doi:10.1080/15534510.2012.664326 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
The Effect of Job Related Stress on Employees’ Satisfaction: A Survey in Health Care
Trivellas, P., Reklitis, P., & Platis, C. (2013) · Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.02.110 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
“Management, sociology and psychology are among the various disciplines engaged in the investigation of work related stress [24, 25].”
Background
Feeling Entitled to More
Poon, K., Chen, Z., & DeWall, C. N. (2013) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167213493187 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
Individual differences in nostalgia proneness: The integrating role of the need to belong
Seehusen, J., Cordaro, F., Wildschut, T., Sedikides, C., Routledge, C., Blackhart, G. C., Epstude, K., & Vingerhoets, A. J. J. M. (2013) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2013.07.020 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
Self-citation
Ostracism breeds depression: Longitudinal associations between ostracism and depression over a three-year-period
Rudert, S. C., Janke, S., & Greifeneder, R. (2021) · Journal of Affective Disorders Reports · doi:10.1016/j.jadr.2021.100118 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
“As ostracism is a prevalent and ubiquitous phenomenon in individuals’ everyday life ( Rudert et al., 2020b ), a plethora of research has investigated its various negative consequences (for an overview, see Blackhart et al., 2009 ; Williams, 2009 ).”
Does Neutral Affect Exist? How Challenging Three Beliefs About Neutral Affect Can Advance Affective Research
Gasper, K., Spencer, L. A., & Hu, D. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02476 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
The impact of social exclusion vs. inclusion on subjective and hormonal reactions in females and males
Seidel, E., Silani, G., Metzler, H., Thaler, H., Lamm, C., Gur, R. C., Kryspin‐Exner, I., Habel, U., & Derntl, B. (2013) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2013.07.021 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
“The present study examined the impact of social exclusion compared to inclusion on steroid hormone concentrations as well as on subjective affect ratings.”
BackgroundMethod
Common brain networks underlying human social interactions: Evidence from large-scale neuroimaging meta-analysis
Feng, C., Eickhoff, S. B., Li, T., Wang, L., Becker, B., Camilleri, J. A., Hétu, S., & Luo, Y. (2021) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.03.025 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
EEG asymmetry in borderline personality disorder and depression following rejection.
Beeney, J. E., Levy, K. N., Gatzke-Kopp, L. M., & Hallquist, M. N. (2014) · Personality Disorders: Theory, Research, and Treatment · doi:10.1037/per0000032 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
The role of person–organization fit and perceived organizational support in the relationship between workplace ostracism and behavioral outcomes
Chung, Y. W. (2015) · Australian Journal of Management · doi:10.1177/0312896215611190 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
“Authors have suggested that workplace ostracism is similar to several other constructs such as social exclusion, rejection and organizational shunning (e.g., Anderson, 2009; Blackhart et al., 2009).”
Background
Social exclusion, social support and psychological Wellbeing at school: A study of mediation and moderation effect
Arslan, G. (2018) · Child Indicators Research · doi:10.1007/s12187-017-9451-1 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
Need to Belong, Not Rejection Sensitivity, Moderates Cortisol Response, Self-Reported Stress, and Negative Affect Following Social Exclusion
Beekman, J. B., Stock, M. L., & Marcus, T. (2015) · The Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/00224545.2015.1071767 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Social exclusion, sense of school belonging and mental health of migrant children in China: A structural equation modeling analysis
Li, C., & Jiang, S. (2018) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2018.04.017 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
Touching a Teddy Bear Mitigates Negative Effects of Social Exclusion to Increase Prosocial Behavior
Tai, K., Zheng, X., & Narayanan, J. (2011) · Social Psychological and Personality Science · doi:10.1177/1948550611404707 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
“Since touch may be effective in reducing stress (Burgoon et al., 1996) and that exclusion is associated with increased cortisol levels (Blackhart et al., 2007), we think that touching a teddy bear may potentially decrease cortisol levels of excluded individuals, and in turn alleviate the stress of…”
Background
Winners, Losers, Insiders, and Outsiders: Comparing Hierometer and Sociometer Theories of Self-Regard
Mahadevan, N., Gregg, A. P., Sedikides, C., & de Waal-Andrews, W. G. (2016) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00334 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
“Finally, receiving rejection feedback, real or imagined, from personal or impersonal sources, lowers self-esteem (Leary et al., 1998; Zadro et al., 2004; but see Blackhart et al., 2009; Bernstein et al., 2013).”
Perceived Communicative Context and Emotional Content Amplify Visual Word Processing in the Fusiform Gyrus
Schindler, S., Wegrzyn, M., Steppacher, I., & Kissler, J. (2015) · The Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.3346-14.2015 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
“, 2013), which might be adaptive in helping people to maintain psychological health (Blackhart et al., 2009).”
Background
Benefits of belonging: Experimental manipulation of social inclusion to enhance psychological and physiological health parameters
Begen, F. M., & Turner‐Cobb, J. M. (2014) · Psychology and Health · doi:10.1080/08870446.2014.991734 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
“Whilst some research suggests that exposure to acute exclusion has been linked to lower self-esteem (Gerber & Wheeler 2009; Leary, 2007) yet other research by Blackhart et al. (2009) observed neutral effects, which were not indicative of an exclusion self-esteem link.”
BackgroundInfluential
Bullying Perpetration, Victimization, and Low Self-esteem: Examining Their Relationship Over Time
Choi, B., & Park, S. (2021) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-020-01379-8 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
“For example, a meta-analysis study found that being rejected by others was too minor event to lower someone’s self-esteem, whereas being accepted by others led to higher self-esteem, with an average weighted effect size of 0.27 (Blackhart et al. 2009).”
BackgroundInfluential
Text-based communication influences self-esteem more than face-to-face or cellphone communication
Gonzales, A. L. (2014) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2014.07.026 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
“A meta-analysis of 72 sociometer articles found that positive interpersonal experiences, more than exclusion, have a notable effect on self-esteem (Blackheart et al., 2009), and a recent diary study supporting sociometer theory found that high quality interactions throughout the day predict…”
Background
Real-life prosocial behavior decreases after being socially excluded by avatars, not agents
Kothgassner, O., Griesinger, M., Kettner, K., Wayan, K., Völkl-Kernstock, S., Hlavacs, H., Beutl, L., & Felnhofer, A. (2017) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2016.12.059 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Psychological and Neuroendocrine Reactivity to Ostracism
Zwolinski, J. (2012) · Aggressive Behavior · doi:10.1002/ab.21411 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Counteracting workplace ostracism in hospitality with psychological empowerment
Huertas-Valdivia, I., Braojos, J., & Montes, F. J. L. (2018) · International Journal of Hospitality Management · doi:10.1016/j.ijhm.2018.05.013 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
“Although self-esteem is a relatively stable trait, individuals can experience temporary fluctuations in response to recent events and outcomes, such as perceived social approval (Blackhart et al., 2009).”
BackgroundInfluential
The Detrimental Effects of Adolescents’ Chronic Loneliness on Motivation and Emotion Regulation in Social Situations
Vanhalst, J., Luyckx, K., Petegem, S. V., & Soenens, B. (2017) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-017-0686-4 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Workplace Ostracism Seen through the Lens of Power
Fiset, J. E., Hajj, R. A., & Vongas, J. G. (2017) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01528 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
“In addition, a recent meta-analysis showed that, among different types of rejection, imagined rejection was most likely to elicit negative affect with an effect size twice as large as that of relived or directly experienced rejection (Blackhart et al., 2009).”
Background
Self-control in Relation to Feelings of Belonging and Acceptance
Blackhart, G., Nelson, B. C., Winter, A., & Rockney, A. (2011) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298861003696410 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Self-citation
“Man's best friend:” How the presence of a dog reduces mental distress after social exclusion
Aydin, N., Krueger, J. I., Fischer, J., Hahn, D., Kastenmüller, A., Frey, D., & Fischer, P. A. (2011) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2011.09.011 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
The effects of idea rejection on creative self‐efficacy and idea generation: Intention to remain and perceived innovation importance as moderators
Ng, T. W. H., Shao, Y., Koopmann, J. M., Wang, M., Hsu, D. Y., & Yim, F. H. (2021) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/job.2567 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Fostering a Sense of Belonging in the Workplace: Enhancing Well-Being and a Positive and Coherent Sense of Self
Waller, L. (2021) · The Palgrave Handbook of Workplace Well-Being · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-02470-3_83-1 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Humor in Teams: Multilevel Relationships Between Humor Climate, Inclusion, Trust, and Citizenship Behaviors
Tremblay, M. (2017) · Journal of Business and Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10869-016-9445-x · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Intrapersonal and interpersonal processes of social exclusion
Kawamoto, T., Ura, M., & Nittono, H. (2015) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2015.00062 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
“…and need for belonging (Smart Richman and Leary, 2009), differences in the manipulations should be investigated further, as recent studies and reviews have argued they may play a role in the studies’ outcomes (e.g., Blackhart et al., 2009; Gerber and Wheeler, 2009; Bernstein and Claypool, 2012).”
Result
Under Threat of Social Exclusion, Females Exclude More Than Males
Benenson, J. F., Markovits, H., Thompson, M. E., & Wrangham, R. W. (2011) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797611402511 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
“As Blackhart et al. (2009) concluded, behavioral measures remain the clearest measures of responses to social exclusion.”
Background
When compliments do not hit but critiques do: an fMRI study into self-esteem and self-knowledge in processing social feedback
van Schie, C. C., Chiu, C., Rombouts, S. A. R. B., Heiser, W. J., & Elzinga, B. M. (2018) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nsy014 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
“More common neural activation for negative and positive feedback compared to intermediate feedback was found in the PCC and TPJ, relevant for self- and other referential thinking.”
BackgroundResultInfluential
Ghosting and orbiting: An analysis of victims’ experiences
Pancani, L., Mazzoni, D., Aureli, N., & Riva, P. (2021) · Journal of Social and Personal Relationships · doi:10.1177/02654075211000417 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
“Thus, it is not surprising that these two breakup strategies elicited negative emotions (Blackhart et al., 2009), especially anger and sadness (Chow et al., 2008).”
Background
Service robots vs. human staff: The effect of service agents and service exclusion on unethical consumer behavior
Liu, Y., Wang, X.-Y., Du, Y., & Wang, S. (2023) · Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management · doi:10.1016/j.jhtm.2023.05.015 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
School Dropout Intention and Self-esteem in Immigrant and Native Students Living in Poverty: The Protective Role of Peer Acceptance at School
Bianchi, D., Cavicchiolo, E., Lucidi, F., Manganelli, S., Girelli, L., Chirico, A., & Alivernini, F. (2021) · School Mental Health · doi:10.1007/s12310-021-09410-4 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Desiring to connect to nature: The effect of ostracism on ecological behavior
Poon, K., Teng, F., Chow, J. T.-S., & Chen, Z. (2015) · Journal of Environmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2015.03.003 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
When justice surrenders: The effect of just-world beliefs on aggression following ostracism
Poon, K., & Chen, Z. (2014) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2014.01.006 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
The experience of ostracism over the adult life span.
Rudert, S., Janke, S., & Greifeneder, R. (2020) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/dev0001096 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Anger and its consequences for judgment and behavior: Recent developments in social and political psychology
Lambert, A. J., Eadeh, F. R., & Hanson, E. J. (2019) · Advances in experimental social psychology · doi:10.1016/bs.aesp.2018.12.001 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Interoceptive Awareness as a Moderator of Affective Responses to Social Exclusion
Werner, N. S., Kerschreiter, R., Kindermann, N. K., & Duschek, S. (2013) · Journal of Psychophysiology · doi:10.1027/0269-8803/a000086 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Social distancing during the COVID-19 pandemic as a predictor of daily psychological, social, and health-related outcomes
Ford, M. B. (2020) · The Journal of General Psychology · doi:10.1080/00221309.2020.1860890 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Social exclusion reduces happiness by creating expectations of future rejection
Sjåstad, H., Zhang, M., Masvie, A. E., & Baumeister, R. F. (2020) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298868.2020.1779119 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Self-citation
Plugged in but not connected: Individuals’ views of and responses to online and in-person ostracism
Filipkowski, K. B., & Smyth, J. M. (2012) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2012.02.007 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Unmet belongingness needs but not high belongingness needs alone predict adverse well‐being: A response surface modeling approach
Verhagen, M., Lodder, G. M. A., & Baumeister, R. F. (2017) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/jopy.12331 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Self-citation
Pseudo-dyadic “interaction” on Amazon’s Mechanical Turk
Summerville, A. L., & Chartier, C. R. (2012) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-012-0250-9 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Losing Face on Social Media
Chen, G. M. (2013) · Communication Research · doi:10.1177/0093650213510937 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
“A meta-analysis of 192 studies of social exclusion shows all types of rejection cause a significant shift toward negative emotions, compared with controls (Blackhart et al., 2009).”
Background
Diminished self-concept and social exclusion: Disparagement humor from the target’s perspective
Ford, T. E., Buie, H. S., Mason, S. D., Olah, A. R., Breeden, C. J., & Ferguson, M. A. (2019) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298868.2019.1653960 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
“Social experiences can signal social exclusion directly through explicit rejection (Blackhart et al., 2009; Wesselmann et al., 2016), or indirectly through subtler “rejection cues” such as exclusionary language (Richman & Leary, 2009; Wesselmann et al., 2016), mockery (Kerr & Levine, 2008) or…”
BackgroundInfluential
Increased neural reactivity to socio-emotional stimuli links social exclusion and aggression
Beyer, F., Münte, T. F., & Krämer, U. M. (2013) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2013.12.008 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Perceptions of who is in the healthcare team? A content analysis of social media posts during COVID-19 pandemic
El‐Awaisi, A., O’Carroll, V., Koraysh, S., Koummich, S., & Huber, M. (2020) · Journal of Interprofessional Care · doi:10.1080/13561820.2020.1819779 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
“These results are consistent with the results of Blackhart et al (Blackhart et al., 2009).”
BackgroundResult
Being Forgotten: Implications for the Experience of Meaning in Life
King, L. A., & Geise, A. C. (2011) · Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/00224545.2010.522620 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Two sides of the ostracism coin: How sources and targets of social exclusion perceive themselves and one another
Poulsen, J. R., & Kashy, D. A. (2011) · Group Processes & Intergroup Relations · doi:10.1177/1368430211430517 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
“These results mirror those of Blackhart et al. (2009) which suggest that different forms of exclusion can elicit different responses from targets.”
BackgroundResult
Organization-based self-esteem in work teams
Gardner, D. G., & Pierce, J. L. (2015) · Group Processes & Intergroup Relations · doi:10.1177/1368430215590491 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Feeling unrestricted by rules: Ostracism promotes aggressive responses
Poon, K., & Teng, F. (2017) · Aggressive Behavior · doi:10.1002/ab.21714 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Brain responses to social feedback in internalizing disorders: A comprehensive review
Rappaport, B. I., & Barch, D. M. (2020) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.09.012 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
High-Quality Listening Supports Speakers’ Autonomy and Self-Esteem when Discussing Prejudice
Itzchakov, G., & Weinstein, N. (2021) · Human Communication Research · doi:10.1093/hcr/hqab003 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Age differences in affective responses to inclusion experience: A daily diary study
Li, Y., Kleshinski, C. E., Wilson, K. S., & Zhang, K. (2021) · Personnel Psychology · doi:10.1111/peps.12484 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
“…the association between exclusion or similar constructs (e.g., ostracism and interpersonal rejection) and affective states (Beekman et al., 2016; Blackhart et al., 2009; Thompson et al., 2020), their between-subject designs make it impossible to articulate howwithin-person variation in…”
Background
Research in Social Psychology: Consequences of Short- and Long-Term Social Exclusion
Bernstein, M. (2016) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-33033-4_3 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Social exclusion and rejection across the psychosis spectrum: A systematic review of empirical research
Lincoln, S. H., Johnson, T., Winters, A., & Laquidara, J. R. (2021) · Schizophrenia Research · doi:10.1016/j.schres.2020.11.056 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
The regulation of positive and negative social feedback: a psychophysiological study
Vanderhasselt, M.-A., Remue, J., Ng, K. K., Mueller, S. C., & De Raedt, R. (2015) · Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3758/s13415-015-0345-8 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
“feedback induces positive affect (Blackhart et al., 2009), this type of feedback could facilitate approach behaviors that motivate people to engage, explore and interact with their envi-”
Influential
Language‐Based Exclusion and Prosocial Behaviors in Organizations
Kulkarni, M., & Sommer, K. L. (2014) · Human Resource Management · doi:10.1002/hrm.21637 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Resilience to Ostracism: A Qualitative Inquiry
Waldeck, D., Tyndall, I. T., & Chmiel, N. (2015) · The Qualitative Report · doi:10.46743/2160-3715/2015.2346 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Relative deprivation: A mechanism for the ostracism–aggression link
Jiang, T., & Chen, Z. (2019) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2621 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Responses to exclusion are moderated by its perceived fairness
Tuscherer, T., Sacco, D. F., Wirth, J. H., Claypool, H. M., Hugenberg, K., & Wesselmann, E. D. (2015) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2152 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Whom to punish? How observers sanction norm‐violating behavior in ostracism situations
Rudert, S. C., Ruf, S., & Greifeneder, R. (2019) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2606 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Emotions and antisocial behavior
Baumeister, R. F., & Lobbestael, J. (2011) · Journal of Forensic Psychiatry and Psychology · doi:10.1080/14789949.2011.617535 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Self-citation
Social status and its link with personality dimensions, trait emotional intelligence, and scholastic achievement in children and early adolescents
Andrei, F., Mancini, G., Mazzoni, E., Russo, P. M., & Baldaro, B. (2015) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2015.07.014 · Cited by 59 · see citing works

Effects of Social Acceptance and Rejection on Self-Esteem
Pasatta, C. (2018) · Murray State's Digital Commons (Murray State University)
On Being Rejected: A Meta-Analysis of Experimental Research on Rejection
Gerber, J., & Wheeler, L. (2009) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1745-6924.2009.01158.x · Cited by 498 · see citing works
Personality Moderators of Reactions to Interpersonal Rejection: Depression and Trait Self-Esteem
Nezlek, J. B., Kowalski, R. M., Leary, M. R., Blevins, T. L., & Holgate, S. (1997) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/01461672972312001 · Cited by 286 · see citing works
Who Is Most Vulnerable to Social Rejection? The Toxic Combination of Low Self-Esteem and Lack of Negative Emotion Differentiation on Neural Responses to Rejection
Kashdan, T. B., DeWall, C. N., Masten, C. L., Pond, R. S., Powell, C. A. J., Combs, D., Schurtz, D. R., & Farmer, A. S. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0090651 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Self-esteem, Social Inclusionary Status, and Inhibition of Rejection
Sinclair, L., & Lentz, T. (2009) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298860903395826 · Cited by 5 · see citing works

Authors: Blackhart, G. C., Nelson, B. C., Knowles, M. L., & Baumeister, R. F.
Affiliations: East Tennessee State University (US)
Franklin & Marshall College (US)
Florida State University (US)
ORCID: Blackhart, Ginette C.
Knowles, Megan L.
Baumeister, Roy F.
Venue: Personality and Social Psychology Review
Publisher: SAGE Publications
Published: 2009-09-21
Volume: 13
Issue: 4
Pages: 269-309
ISSN: 1088-8683 (ISSN-L)
1532-7957
DOI: 10.1177/1088868309346065
OpenAlex: W2141373402
Semantic Scholar: a6d420a191ff58603ad6c5d1da6d0a6ac43952d5
Cited by: 504
References: 193
Citations by year: 2026: 22 · 2025: 29 · 2024: 33 · 2023: 30 · 2022: 29 · 2021: 61 · 2020: 35 · 2019: 31 · 2018: 26 · 2017: 41 · 2016: 20 · 2015: 31 · 2014: 35 · 2013: 32 · 2012: 22
FWCI: 2.18
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: journals.sagepub.com/page/policies/text-and-data-mining-license (tdm)
Locations: Personality and Social Psychology Review (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Digital Commons - East Tennessee State University (East Tennessee State University) (submittedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Death Anxiety and Social Exclusion
Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Bullying, Victimization, and Aggression
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
Keywords: social exclusion, interpersonal rejection, ostracism, emotional responses, self-esteem, positive affect, negative affect, sociometer theory, acceptance
MeSH terms: Affect, Emotions, Humans, Psychological Theory, Rejection, Psychology, Self Concept

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Rejection elicits emotional reactions but neither causes immediate distress nor lowers self-esteem: a meta-analytic review of 192 studies on social exclusion

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