Adult romantic attachment: Theoretical developments, emerging controversies, and unanswered questions

Fraley, R. Chris; Shaver, Phillip R.

doi:10.1037/1089-2680.4.2.132

Cited by 1,601Attachment and Relationship DynamicsFamily Dynamics and RelationshipsEvolutionary Psychology and Human Behavior

Adult romantic attachment: Theoretical developments, emerging controversies, and unanswered questions

Fraley, R. Chris, Shaver, Phillip R.·2000·Review of General Psychology

DOI 10.1037/1089-2680.4.2.132

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Abstract

The authors review the theory of romantic, or pair-bond, attachment as it was originally formulated by C. Hazan and P. R. Shaver in 1987 and describe how it has evolved over more than a decade. In addition, they discuss 5 issues related to the theory that need further clarification: (a) the nature of attachment relationships, (b) the evolution and function of attachment in adulthood, (c) models of individual differences in attachment, (d) continuity and change in attachment security, and (e) the integration of attachment, sex, and caregiving. In discussing these issues, they provide leads for future research and outline a more complete theory of romantic attachment.

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Attachment theory emphasizes that internal working models shape trust, emotion regulation, and social behavioral strategies, thereby organizing social functioning and interpersonal tendencies.
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From Peer Attachment and Prosocial Behavior: The Mediating Role of Positive Legal Emotion and the Moderating Effect of Social Exclusion (2026) · cites this paper as Fraley & Shaver, 2000

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Attachment Theory and Affect Regulation: The Dynamics, Development, and Cognitive Consequences of Attachment-Related Strategies
Mikulincer, M., Shaver, P. R., & Pereg, D. (2003) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1023/a:1024515519160 · Cited by 1,788 · see citing works
Self-citation
The Attachment Behavioral System In Adulthood: Activation, Psychodynamics, And Interpersonal Processes
Mikulincer, M., & Shaver, P. R. (2003) · Advances in Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(03)01002-5 · Cited by 1,485 · see citing works
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The experiences in close relationships—Relationship Structures Questionnaire: A method for assessing attachment orientations across relationships.
Fraley, R. C., Heffernan, M. E., Vicary, A. M., & Brumbaugh, C. C. (2011) · Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1037/a0022898 · Cited by 1,198 · see citing works
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Positive emotion dispositions differentially associated with Big Five personality and attachment style
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Attachment-related psychodynamics
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Self-report captures 27 distinct categories of emotion bridged by continuous gradients
Cowen, A. S., & Keltner, D. (2017) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1702247114 · Cited by 897 · see citing works
Optimizing assurance: The risk regulation system in relationships.
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Attachment, Caregiving, and Altruism: Boosting Attachment Security Increases Compassion and Helping.
Mikulincer, M., Shaver, P. R., Gillath, O., & Nitzberg, R. A. (2005) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.89.5.817 · Cited by 739 · see citing works
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Perceptions of Conflict and Support in Romantic Relationships: The Role of Attachment Anxiety
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Attachment orientations and emotion regulation
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Adult attachment measures: A 25-year review
Ravitz, P., Maunder, R., Hunter, J., Sthankiya, B., & Lancee, W. (2010) · Journal of Psychosomatic Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2009.08.006 · Cited by 709 · see citing works
Measurement of individual differences in adolescent and adult attachment.
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Attachment theory and emotions in close relationships: Exploring the attachment-related dynamics of emotional reactions to relational events
Mikulincer, M., & Shaver, P. R. (2005) · Personal Relationships · doi:10.1111/j.1350-4126.2005.00108.x · Cited by 597 · see citing works
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Reliability and Validity of the Revised Experiences in Close Relationships (ECR-R) Self-Report Measure of Adult Romantic Attachment
Sibley, C. G., Fischer, R., & Liu, J. H. (2005) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167205276865 · Cited by 549 · see citing works
The Internal Working Models Concept: What do we Really know about the Self in Relation to Others?
Pietromonaco, P. R., & Barrett, L. F. (2000) · Review of General Psychology · doi:10.1037/1089-2680.4.2.155 · Cited by 556 · see citing works
Social baseline theory: The role of social proximity in emotion and economy of action
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The Adult Attachment Interview and self-reports of attachment style: An empirical rapprochement.
Roisman, G. I., Holland, A. S., Fortuna, K., Fraley, R. C., Clausell, E., & Clarke, A. (2007) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.92.4.678 · Cited by 533 · see citing works
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Attachment dimensions and the big five personality traits: Associations and comparative ability to predict relationship quality
Noftle, E. E., & Shaver, P. R. (2006) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2004.11.003 · Cited by 501 · see citing works
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Parent and peer attachment in late childhood and early adolescence
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The neurobiology of pair bonding: Insights from a socially monogamous rodent
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Are infant attachment patterns continuously or categorically distributed? A taxometric analysis of strange situation behavior.
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Romantic love: a mammalian brain system for mate choice
Fisher, H. E., Aron, A., & Brown, L. L. (2006) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2006.1938 · Cited by 411 · see citing works
An attachment perspective on human–pet relationships: Conceptualization and assessment of pet attachment orientations
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Physical, Emotional, and Behavioral Reactions to Breaking Up: The Roles of Gender, Age, Emotional Involvement, and Attachment Style
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Are adult attachment styles categorical or dimensional? A taxometric analysis of general and relationship-specific attachment orientations.
Fraley, R. C., Hudson, N., Heffernan, M. E., & Segal, N. (2015) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/pspp0000027 · Cited by 380 · see citing works
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When sex is more than just sex: Attachment orientations, sexual experience, and relationship quality.
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How anxious and avoidant attachment affect romantic relationship quality differently: A meta‐analytic review
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Infants' meaning-making and the development of mental health problems.
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Predictors and Parameters of Resilience to Loss: Toward an Individual Differences Model
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Attachment Style and Subjective Motivations for Sex
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Attachment-Related Strategies During Thought Suppression: Ironic Rebounds and Vulnerable Self-Representations.
Mikulincer, M., Dolev, T., & Shaver, P. R. (2004) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.87.6.940 · Cited by 341 · see citing works
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An integrative theoretical framework for understanding sexual motivation, arousal, and behavior
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The Role of Parental and Peer Attachment in the Psychological Health and Self-Esteem of Adolescents
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Adult attachment and the perception of emotional expressions: probing the hyperactivating strategies underlying anxious attachment.
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Nostalgia as a repository of social connectedness: The role of attachment-related avoidance
Wildschut, T., Sedikides, C., Routledge, C., Arndt, J., & Cordaro, F. (2010) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0017597 · Cited by 328 · see citing works
Leaders as attachment figures: Leaders' attachment orientations predict leadership-related mental representations and followers' performance and mental health.
Davidovitz, R., Mikulincer, M., Shaver, P. R., Izsak, R., & Popper, M. (2007) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.93.4.632 · Cited by 324 · see citing works
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Attachment and exploration in adulthood.
Elliot, A. J., & Reis, H. T. (2003) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.85.2.317 · Cited by 327 · see citing works
Interpersonal Emotion Regulation Model of Mood and Anxiety Disorders
Hofmann, S. G. (2014) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-014-9620-1 · Cited by 320 · see citing works
Adult attachment and the defensive regulation of attention and memory: Examining the role of preemptive and postemptive defensive processes.
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Attachment dimensions and sexual motives
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The pushes and pulls of close relationships: Attachment insecurities and relational ambivalence.
Mikulincer, M., Shaver, P. R., Shmilovitch, N. B.-O., & Ein‐Dor, T. (2010) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0017366 · Cited by 295 · see citing works
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Dynamic Development of Action and Thought
Fischer, K. W., & Bidell, T. R. (2007) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9780470147658.chpsy0107 · Cited by 292 · see citing works
Once hurt, twice hurtful: How perceived regard regulates daily marital interactions.
Murray, S., Bellavia, G. M., Rose, P., & Griffin, D. W. (2003) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.84.1.126 · Cited by 286 · see citing works
Factors Affecting the Perception of Disability: A Developmental Perspective
Babik, I., & Gardner, E. S. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.702166 · Cited by 307 · see citing works
Interpersonal Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (IERQ): Scale Development and Psychometric Characteristics
Hofmann, S. G., Carpenter, J. K., & Curtiss, J. (2016) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-016-9756-2 · Cited by 279 · see citing works
Childhood Maltreatment and Psychopathology: Prospective Tests of Attachment, Cognitive Vulnerability, and Stress as Mediating Processes
Hankin, B. L. (2005) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-005-9631-z · Cited by 270 · see citing works
Adult Attachment Dimensions and Specificity of Emotional Distress Symptoms: Prospective Investigations of Cognitive Risk and Interpersonal Stress Generation as Mediating Mechanisms
Hankin, B. L., Kassel, J. D., & Abela, J. R. Z. (2004) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167204271324 · Cited by 267 · see citing works
Attachment theory and group processes: The association between attachment style and group-related representations, goals, memories, and functioning.
Rom, E., & Mikulincer, M. (2003) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.84.6.1220 · Cited by 265 · see citing works
The adult attachment interview and self‐reports of romantic attachment: Associations across domains and methods
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Working Models of Attachment, Support Giving, and Support Seeking in a Stressful Situation
Simpson, J. A., Rholes, W. S., Oriña, M. M., & Grich, J. (2002) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167202288004 · Cited by 258 · see citing works
Why We Need Interdependence Theory
Rusbult, C. E., & Lange, P. A. M. V. (2008) · Social and Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/j.1751-9004.2008.00147.x · Cited by 265 · see citing works
Adult attachment, the transition to parenthood, and depressive symptoms.
Simpson, J. A., Rholes, W. S., Campbell, L., Tran, S., & Wilson, C. L. (2003) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.84.6.1172 · Cited by 251 · see citing works
Attachment, Self-Esteem, Worldviews, and Terror Management: Evidence for a Tripartite Security System.
Hart, J., Shaver, P. R., & Goldenberg, J. L. (2005) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.88.6.999 · Cited by 344 · see citing works
Self-citation
TARGET ARTICLE: Selective Investment Theory: Recasting the Functional Significance of Close Relationships
Brown, S. L., & Brown, R. M. (2006) · Psychological Inquiry · doi:10.1207/s15327965pli1701_01 · Cited by 247 · see citing works
Insecure attachment and depressive symptoms: The mediating role of rumination, empathy, and forgiveness
Burnette, J. L., Davis, D. E., Green, J. D., Worthington, E. L., & Bradfield, E. (2009) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2008.10.016 · Cited by 246 · see citing works
Attachment and Loss: A Test of Three Competing Models on the Association between Attachment-Related Avoidance and Adaptation to Bereavement
Fraley, R. C., & Bonanno, G. A. (2004) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167204264289 · Cited by 247 · see citing works
Self-citation
“Sexting” and adult romantic attachment
Weisskirch, R. S., & Delevi, R. (2011) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2011.02.008 · Cited by 244 · see citing works
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What’s inside the minds of securely and insecurely attached people? The secure-base script and its associations with attachment-style dimensions.
Mikulincer, M., Shaver, P. R., Sapir-Lavid, Y., & Avihou, N. (2009) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0015649 · Cited by 241 · see citing works
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Romantic Partners and Four-Legged Friends: An Extension of Attachment Theory to Relationships with Pets
Beck, L., & Madresh, E. A. (2008) · Anthrozoös · doi:10.2752/089279308x274056 · Cited by 244 · see citing works
Dating couples' attachment styles and patterns of cortisol reactivity and recovery in response to a relationship conflict.
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Interpersonal attraction and personality: What is attractive--self similarity, ideal similarity, complementarity or attachment security?
Klohnen, E. C., & Luo, S. (2003) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.85.4.709 · Cited by 236 · see citing works
Consumer‐retailer emotional attachment
Vlachos, P. A., Theotokis, A., Pramatari, K. C., & Vrechopoulos, A. (2010) · European Journal of Marketing · doi:10.1108/03090561011062934 · Cited by 240 · see citing works
From Dating to Mating and Relating: Predictors of Initial and Long–Term Outcomes of Speed–Dating in a Community Sample
Asendorpf, J. B., Penke, L., & Back, M. D. (2010) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.768 · Cited by 234 · see citing works
Does adult attachment style mediate the relationship between childhood maltreatment and mental and physical health outcomes
Widom, C. S., Czaja, S. J., Kozakowski, S. S., & Chauhan, P. (2018) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2017.05.002 · Cited by 235 · see citing works
An attachment and behavioral systems perspective on social support
Mikulincer, M., & Shaver, P. R. (2009) · Journal of Social and Personal Relationships · doi:10.1177/0265407509105518 · Cited by 233 · see citing works
Self-citation
Attachment and mental and physical health: Self-compassion and mattering as mediators.
Raque‐Bogdan, T. L., Ericson, S., Jackson, J., Martin, H. M., & Bryan, N. A. (2011) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0023041 · Cited by 234 · see citing works
Self-acceptance and self-disclosure of sexual orientation in lesbian, gay, and bisexual adults: An attachment perspective.
Mohr, J. J., & Fassinger, R. E. (2003) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0167.50.4.482 · Cited by 230 · see citing works
Children's Parents
Bornstein, M. H. (2015) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118963418.childpsy403 · Cited by 227 · see citing works
It's more than sex: exploring the dyadic nature of sleep and implications for health
Troxel, W. M. (2010) · Psychosomatic Medicine · doi:10.1097/psy.0b013e3181de7ff8 · Cited by 225 · see citing works
“Given that attachment is purported to be a relatively stable characteristic (65,66), it may be less likely to show reverse associations with sleep than is true for general measures of marital quality or satisfaction (i.”
Background
Trust at zero acquaintance: More a matter of respect than expectation of reward.
Dunning, D. A., Anderson, J. E., Schlösser, T. M., Ehlebracht, D., & Fetchenhauer, D. (2014) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0036673 · Cited by 225 · see citing works
Social Touch Technology: A Survey of Haptic Technology for Social Touch
Huisman, G. (2017) · IEEE Transactions on Haptics · doi:10.1109/toh.2017.2650221 · Cited by 229 · see citing works
Individual differences in children's suggestibility: a review and synthesis
Bruck, M., & Melnyk, L. (2004) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.1070 · Cited by 224 · see citing works
Adult attachment styles in the workplace
Harms, P. D. (2010) · Human Resource Management Review · doi:10.1016/j.hrmr.2010.10.006 · Cited by 221 · see citing works
How self-evaluations relate to being liked by others: Integrating sociometer and attachment perspectives.
Srivastava, S., & Beer, J. S. (2005) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.89.6.966 · Cited by 218 · see citing works
Intense, Passionate, Romantic Love: A Natural Addiction? How the Fields That Investigate Romance and Substance Abuse Can Inform Each Other
Fisher, H. E., Xu, X., Aron, A. P., & Brown, L. L. (2016) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00687 · Cited by 222 · see citing works
A Cognitive Attachment Model of prolonged grief: Integrating attachments, memory, and identity
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Humility and the Development and Repair of Social Bonds: Two Longitudinal Studies
Davis, D. E., Worthington, E. L., Hook, J. N., Emmons, R. A., Hill, P. C., Bollinger, R. A., & Tongeren, D. R. V. (2012) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298868.2011.636509 · Cited by 216 · see citing works
Do neural responses to rejection depend on attachment style? An fMRI study
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Enhancing infant attachment security: An examination of treatment efficacy and differential susceptibility
Cassidy, J. A., Woodhouse, S. S., Sherman, L. J., Stupica, B., & Lejuez, C. W. (2011) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579410000696 · Cited by 205 · see citing works
From the Cradle to the Grave: Age Differences in Attachment From Early Adulthood to Old Age
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On friendship development and the Big Five personality traits
Harris, K., & Vazire, S. (2016) · Social and Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/spc3.12287 · Cited by 205 · see citing works
Interparental conflict, negative parenting, and children's adjustment: bridging links between parents' depression and children's psychological distress
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Emotion regulation as a mediator in the relationship between attachment and depressive symptomatology: A systematic review
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Calibrating the sociometer: The relational contingencies of self-esteem.
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Adult Romantic Attachments: A Developmental Perspective on Individual Differences
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Adult Attachment Orientations and Relationship Processes
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Humans' attachment to their mobile phones and its relationship with interpersonal attachment style
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Relationship-contingent self-esteem and the ups and downs of romantic relationships
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Authors: Fraley, R. C., & Shaver, P. R.
Affiliations: University of California, Davis (US)
ORCID: Fraley, R. Chris
Shaver, Phillip R.
Venue: Review of General Psychology
Publisher: SAGE Publications
Published: 2000-06
Volume: 4
Issue: 2
Pages: 132-154
ISSN: 1089-2680 (ISSN-L)
1939-1552
DOI: 10.1037/1089-2680.4.2.132
OpenAlex: W2142842143
Cited by: 1,601
References: 138
Citations by year: 2026: 46 · 2025: 74 · 2024: 76 · 2023: 84 · 2022: 118 · 2021: 68 · 2020: 83 · 2019: 80 · 2018: 69 · 2017: 83 · 2016: 91 · 2015: 80 · 2014: 82 · 2013: 89 · 2012: 70
FWCI: 20.81
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: journals.sagepub.com/page/policies/text-and-data-mining-license (tdm)
Locations: Review of General Psychology (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Attachment and Relationship Dynamics
Social Sciences › Demography › Family Dynamics and Relationships
Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Evolutionary Psychology and Human Behavior
Keywords: romantic attachment, attachment theory, adult attachment, attachment security, caregiving

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Adult romantic attachment: Theoretical developments, emerging controversies, and unanswered questions

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