Understanding the tumor immune microenvironment (TIME) for effective therapy
Open accessAbstract
The clinical successes in immunotherapy have been both astounding and at the same time unsatisfactory. Countless patients with varied tumor types have seen pronounced clinical response with immunotherapeutic intervention; however, many more patients have experienced minimal or no clinical benefit when provided the same treatment. As technology has advanced, so has the understanding of the complexity and diversity of the immune context of the tumor microenvironment and its influence on response to therapy. It has been possible to identify different subclasses of immune environment that have an influence on tumor initiation and response and therapy; by parsing the unique classes and subclasses of tumor immune microenvironment (TIME) that exist within a patient's tumor, the ability to predict and guide immunotherapeutic responsiveness will improve, and new therapeutic targets will be revealed.
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As a result of interactions with TAMs, CAFs, and cancer cells, CD8+ T cells become suppressed, exhausted, or unable to reach the tumor parenchyma, allowing cancer cells to proliferate.
“However, as a result of interactions with TAMs, CAFs, and cancer cells, these T cells become suppressed, exhausted, or are unable to reach the tumor parenchyma, thus allowing cancer cells to proliferate [47].”
From 3D In Vitro Model (R)evolution: Unveiling Tumor–Stroma Interactions (2021) · cites this paper as [47]
Immune cells can influence the function of other stromal cells.
“these cells can in fl uence the function of other stromal cells [47].”
From 3D In Vitro Model (R)evolution: Unveiling Tumor–Stroma Interactions (2021) · cites this paper as [47]
The immune landscape of the tumor microenvironment is large.
“the immune landscape of the TME is large”
From 3D In Vitro Model (R)evolution: Unveiling Tumor–Stroma Interactions (2021) · cites this paper as [47]
The TME is dynamically changing throughout treatment, reflecting either response to therapy or tumor progression.
“In addition, since the TME is dynamically changing throughout the treatment, reflecting either response to therapy or tumor progression67, the H&E WSIs may not accurately represent the TME of patients following first-line treatment.”
From Predicting the tumor microenvironment composition and immunotherapy response in non-small cell lung cancer from digital histopathology images (2024) · cites this paper as [67]
In the TME, cytokines can build a tumor-supportive immune microenvironment that suppresses anti-tumor immunity and exerts direct tumor-promoting signals.
“In the TME, cytokines may build a tumor-supportive immune microenvironment, that suppresses anti-tumor immunity and exerts direct tumor-promoting signals (11).”
From Tumor-Induced Inflammatory Cytokines and the Emerging Diagnostic Devices for Cancer Detection and Prognosis (2021) · cites this paper as [11]
The TME is a dynamic and multifaceted milieu that consists of multiple cellular entities and molecular constituents that often dictate the behavior of nearby cancer cells.
“The TME is a dynamic and multifaceted milieu that consists of multiple cellular entities and molecular constituents that often dictate the behavior of nearby cancer cells.”
From Drug repurposing for cancer therapy (2024) · cites this paper as [344]
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Lack of immunoediting in murine pancreatic cancer reversed with neoantigen
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Inflammation and cancer: triggers, mechanisms, and consequences
Greten, F. R., & Grivennikov, S. I. (2019) · Immunity · doi:10.1016/j.immuni.2019.06.025 · Cited by 3,806 · see citing works
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KRAS Mutation: From Undruggable to Druggable in Cancer
Huang, L., Guo, Z., Wang, F., & Fu, L. (2021) · Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy · doi:10.1038/s41392-021-00780-4 · Cited by 1,127 · see citing works
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Challenges and Opportunities for Pancreatic Cancer Immunotherapy
Bear, A. S., Vonderheide, R. H., & O'Hara, M. H. (2020) · Cancer Cell · doi:10.1016/j.ccell.2020.08.004 · Cited by 674 · see citing works
Self-citationImproving cancer immunotherapy through nanotechnology
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Dai, E., Han, L., Liu, J., Xie, Y., Kroemer, G., Klionsky, D. J., Zeh, H. J., Kang, R., Wang, J., & Tang, D. (2020) · Autophagy · doi:10.1080/15548627.2020.1714209 · Cited by 613 · see citing works
Microbiota triggers STING-type I IFN-dependent monocyte reprogramming of the tumor microenvironment
Lam, K. C., Araya, R. E., Huang, A., Chen, Q., Di Modica, M., Rodrigues, R. R., Lopès, A., Johnson, S. B., Schwarz, B., Bohrnsen, E., et al. (2021) · Cell · doi:10.1016/j.cell.2021.09.019 · Cited by 604 · see citing works
CAR T cells in solid tumors: challenges and opportunities
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Fibroblast-macrophage reciprocal interactions in health, fibrosis, and cancer
Buechler, M. B., Fu, W., & Turley, S. J. (2021) · Immunity · doi:10.1016/j.immuni.2021.04.021 · Cited by 494 · see citing works
Functional genomic landscape of cancer-intrinsic evasion of killing by T cells
Lawson, K. A., Sousa, C. M., Zhang, X., Kim, E., Akthar, R., Caumanns, J. J., Yao, Y., Mikolajewicz, N., Ross, C., Brown, K. R., et al. (2020) · Nature · doi:10.1038/s41586-020-2746-2 · Cited by 443 · see citing works
Genomic correlates of response to immune checkpoint blockade
Keenan, T. E., Burke, K. P., & Van Allen, E. M. (2019) · Nature Medicine · doi:10.1038/s41591-019-0382-x · Cited by 448 · see citing works
Oh, M.-H., Sun, I.-H., Zhao, L., Leone, R. D., Sun, I.-M., Xu, W., Collins, S. L., Tam, A. J., Blosser, R. L., Patel, C. H., et al. (2020) · Journal of Clinical Investigation · doi:10.1172/jci131859 · Cited by 456 · see citing works
Fu, T., Dai, L.-J., Wu, S.-Y., Xiao, Y., Ma, D., Jiang, Y.-Z., & Shao, Z.-M. (2021) · Journal of Hematology & Oncology · doi:10.1186/s13045-021-01103-4 · Cited by 480 · see citing works
The emerging role of epigenetic therapeutics in immuno-oncology
Topper, M. J., Vaz, M., Marrone, K. A., Brahmer, J. R., & Baylin, S. B. (2020) · Nature Reviews Clinical Oncology · doi:10.1038/s41571-019-0266-5 · Cited by 433 · see citing works
Drug repurposing for cancer therapy
Xia, Y., Sun, M., Huang, H., & Jin, W.-L. (2024) · Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy · doi:10.1038/s41392-024-01808-1 · Cited by 443 · see citing works
“344 In this section, we evaluated the anticancer activity of repurposed drugs from multiple perspectives including the TIME, metabolism microenvironment, mechanical microenvironment, hypoxic micro-environment, acidic niche, innervated niche, and microbial microenvironment.”
Method3D In Vitro Model (R)evolution: Unveiling Tumor–Stroma Interactions
Rodrigues, J., Heinrich, M. A., Teixeira, L. M., & Prakash, J. (2021) · Trends in Cancer · doi:10.1016/j.trecan.2020.10.009 · Cited by 405 · see citing works
“However, as a result of interactions with TAMs, CAFs, and cancer cells, these T cells become suppressed, exhausted, or are unable to reach the tumor parenchyma, thus allowing cancer cells to proliferate [47].”
BackgroundTumor-associated macrophages: potential therapeutic strategies and future prospects in cancer
Li, C., Xu, X., Wei, S., Jiang, P., Xue, L., & Wang, J. (2021) · Journal for ImmunoTherapy of Cancer · doi:10.1136/jitc-2020-001341 · Cited by 360 · see citing works
<i>Enterococcus</i> peptidoglycan remodeling promotes checkpoint inhibitor cancer immunotherapy
Griffin, M. E., Espinosa, J., Becker, J. L., Luo, J.-D., Carroll, T. S., Jha, J. K., Fanger, G. R., & Hang, H. C. (2021) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.abc9113 · Cited by 366 · see citing works
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“In the TME, cytokines may build a tumor-supportive immune microenvironment, that suppresses anti-tumor immunity and exerts direct tumor-promoting signals (11).”
BackgroundUnderstanding the tumor microenvironment for effective immunotherapy
Sadeghi Rad, H., Monkman, J., Warkiani, M. E., Ladwa, R., O'Byrne, K., Rezaei, N., & Kulasinghe, A. (2021) · Medicinal Research Reviews · doi:10.1002/med.21765 · Cited by 334 · see citing works
Hack, S. P., Zhu, A. X., & Wang, Y. (2020) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2020.598877 · Cited by 286 · see citing works
Activatable Polymer Nanoenzymes for Photodynamic Immunometabolic Cancer Therapy
Zeng, Z., Zhang, C., Li, J., Cui, D., Jiang, Y., & Pu, K. (2021) · Advanced Materials · doi:10.1002/adma.202007247 · Cited by 276 · see citing works
Cassetta, L., & Pollard, J. W. (2020) · Current Biology · doi:10.1016/j.cub.2020.01.031 · Cited by 258 · see citing works
SHP2 inhibition diminishes KRASG12C cycling and promotes tumor microenvironment remodeling
Fedele, C., Li, S., Teng, K. W., Foster, C. J. R., Peng, D., Ran, H., Mita, P., Geer, M. J., Hattori, T., Koide, A., et al. (2021) · Journal of Experimental Medicine · doi:10.1084/jem.20201414 · Cited by 265 · see citing works
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IL-6 regulates autophagy and chemotherapy resistance by promoting BECN1 phosphorylation
Hu, F., Song, D., Yan, Y., Huang, C., Shen, C., Lan, J., Chen, Y., Liu, A., Wu, Q., Sun, L., et al. (2021) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-021-23923-1 · Cited by 235 · see citing works
Engineering nanomedicines through boosting immunogenic cell death for improved cancer immunotherapy
Gao, J., Wang, W.-Q., Pei, Q., Lord, M. S., & Yu, H.-J. (2020) · Acta Pharmacologica Sinica · doi:10.1038/s41401-020-0400-z · Cited by 203 · see citing works
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Hepatic Stellate Cell-Macrophage Crosstalk in Liver Fibrosis and Carcinogenesis
Matsuda, M., & Seki, E. (2020) · Seminars in Liver Disease · doi:10.1055/s-0040-1708876 · Cited by 189 · see citing works
Choi, Y., & Jung, K. (2023) · Experimental & Molecular Medicine · doi:10.1038/s12276-023-01114-w · Cited by 188 · see citing works
Pooled Knockin Targeting for Genome Engineering of Cellular Immunotherapies
Roth, T. L., Li, P. J., Blaeschke, F., Nies, J. F., Apathy, R., Mowery, C., Yu, R., Nguyen, M. L. T., Lee, Y., Truong, A., et al. (2020) · Cell · doi:10.1016/j.cell.2020.03.039 · Cited by 186 · see citing works
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Evaluating natural killer cell cytotoxicity against solid tumors using a microfluidic model
Ayuso, J. M., Truttschel, R., Gong, M. M., Humayun, M., Virumbrales-Munoz, M., Vitek, R., Felder, M., Gillies, S. D., Sondel, P., Wisinski, K. B., et al. (2019) · OncoImmunology · doi:10.1080/2162402x.2018.1553477 · Cited by 142 · see citing works
Gamma delta T-cell-based immune checkpoint therapy: attractive candidate for antitumor treatment
Gao, Z., Bai, Y., Lin, A., Jiang, A., Zhou, C., Cheng, Q., Liu, Z., Chen, X., Zhang, J., & Luo, P. (2023) · Molecular Cancer · doi:10.1186/s12943-023-01722-0 · Cited by 138 · see citing works
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Kerr, D. L., Haderk, F., & Bivona, T. G. (2021) · Current Opinion in Chemical Biology · doi:10.1016/j.cbpa.2020.11.007 · Cited by 124 · see citing works
Targeted cancer immunotherapy with genetically engineered oncolytic Salmonella typhimurium
Guo, Y., Chen, Y., Liu, X., Min, J.-J., Tan, W., & Zheng, J. H. (2020) · Cancer Letters · doi:10.1016/j.canlet.2019.10.033 · Cited by 124 · see citing works
A comprehensive review of SHP2 and its role in cancer
Asmamaw, M. D., Shi, X.-J., Zhang, L.-R., & Liu, H.-M. (2022) · Cellular Oncology · doi:10.1007/s13402-022-00698-1 · Cited by 119 · see citing works
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Surendran, V., Rutledge, D., Colmon, R., & Chandrasekaran, A. (2021) · Biofabrication · doi:10.1088/1758-5090/abe1cf · Cited by 99 · see citing works
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Metabolic reprogramming in tumors: Contributions of the tumor microenvironment
Lane, A. N., Higashi, R. M., & Fan, T. W.-M. (2020) · Genes & Diseases · doi:10.1016/j.gendis.2019.10.007 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
Polygenic risk for skin autoimmunity impacts immune checkpoint blockade in bladder cancer
Khan, Z., Di Nucci, F., Kwan, A., Hammer, C., Mariathasan, S., Rouilly, V., Carroll, J., Fontes, M., Ley Acosta, S., Guardino, E., et al. (2020) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1922867117 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
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Hypoxia-inducible factor orchestrates adenosine metabolism to promote liver cancer development
Cheu, J. W.-S., Chiu, D. K.-C., Kwan, K. K.-L., Yang, C., Yuen, V. W.-H., Goh, C. C., Chui, N. N.-Q., Shen, W., Law, C.-T., Li, Q., et al. (2023) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.ade5111 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Cell Fate Reprogramming in the Era of Cancer Immunotherapy
Zimmermannova, O., Caiado, I., Ferreira, A. G., & Pereira, C.-F. (2021) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2021.714822 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Role of the tumor microenvironment in cancer hallmarks and targeted therapy (Review)
Naser, R., Fakhoury, I., El‑Fouani, A., Abi‑Habib, R., & El‑Sibai, M. (2022) · International Journal of Oncology · doi:10.3892/ijo.2022.5471 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
The Multifaceted Role of Regulatory T Cells in Breast Cancer
Kos, K., & de Visser, K. E. (2021) · Annual Review of Cancer Biology · doi:10.1146/annurev-cancerbio-042920-104912 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Bridging the gap between tumor-on-chip and clinics: a systematic review of 15 years of studies
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Susceptibility and Resistance Mechanisms During Photodynamic Therapy of Melanoma
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- Authors
- Binnewies, M., Roberts, E. W., Kersten, K., Chan, V., Fearon, D. F., Merad, M., Coussens, L. M., Gabrilovich, D. I., Ostrand-Rosenberg, S., Hedrick, C. C., Vonderheide, R. H., Pittet, M. J., Jain, R. K., Zou, W., Howcroft, T. K., Woodhouse, E. C., Weinberg, R. A., & Krummel, M. F.
- Affiliations
- University of California, San Francisco (US)
- Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory (US)
- Oregon Health & Science University (US)
- The Wistar Institute (US)
- La Jolla Institute for Immunology (US)
- Abramson Cancer Center (US)
- Harvard University (US)
- University of Michigan (US)
- National Institutes of Health (US)
- Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research (US)
- Corresponding author
- Weinberg, Robert A.
- Krummel, Matthew F.
- ORCID
- Venue
- Nature Medicine
- Published
- 2018-04-23
- Volume
- 24
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 541-550
- ISSN
- 1078-8956 (ISSN-L)
- 1546-170X
- PMC
- PMC5998822
- OpenAlex
- W2801309958
- Cited by
- 6,145
- References
- 112
- Citations by year
- 2026: 935 · 2025: 918 · 2024: 890 · 2023: 859 · 2022: 905 · 2021: 749 · 2020: 571 · 2019: 259 · 2018: 48 · 2012: 1
- FWCI
- 43.01
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Nature Medicine (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Institutional Repository (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) (submittedVersion)
- ENLIGHTEN (Jurnal Bimbingan dan Konseling Islam) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Funders
- National Cancer Institute (R01CA206890, R01CA211016, R01CA202987, R01CA173861, P01CA080124, R35CA197743, R01CA208205, R01CA190400, P30CA010815)
- National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (R01AI114787)
- Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (T32HD007470)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Oncology › Cancer Immunotherapy and Biomarkers
- Life Sciences › Immunology and Microbiology › Immunology › Immune cells in cancer
- Life Sciences › Immunology and Microbiology › Immunology › Immunotherapy and Immune Responses
- Keywords
- tumor immune microenvironment, immunotherapy response, immune contexture, predictive biomarkers, immunotherapy resistance, therapeutic target, tumor initiation
- MeSH terms
- Genotype, Humans, Immunotherapy, Neoplasm Metastasis, Neoplasms, Phenotype, Tumor Microenvironment
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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