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Cited by 960Mindfulness and Compassion InterventionsPsychological Well-being and Life SatisfactionReligion, Spirituality, and Psychology

Loving-Kindness and Compassion Meditation: Potential for Psychological Interventions

Open access
Hofmann, Stefan G., Grossman, Paul, Hinton, Devon E.·2011·Clinical Psychology Review
DOI 10.1016/j.cpr.2011.07.003PMC PMC3176989
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Abstract

Mindfulness-based meditation interventions have become increasingly popular in contemporary psychology. Other closely related meditation practices include loving-kindness meditation (LKM) and compassion meditation (CM), exercises oriented toward enhancing unconditional, positive emotional states of kindness and compassion. This article provides a review of the background, the techniques, and the empirical contemporary literature of LKM and CM. The literature suggests that LKM and CM are associated with an increase in positive affect and a decrease in negative affect. Preliminary findings from neuroendocrine studies indicate that CM may reduce stress-induced subjective distress and immune response. Neuroimaging studies suggest that LKM and CM may enhance activation of brain areas that are involved in emotional processing and empathy. Finally, preliminary intervention studies support application of these strategies in clinical populations. It is concluded that, when combined with empirically supported treatments, such as cognitive behavioral therapy, LKM and CM may provide potentially useful strategies for targeting a variety of different psychological problems that involve interpersonal processes, such as social anxiety, marital conflict, anger, and coping with the strains of long-term caregiving.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This narrative review summarizes background, techniques, and empirical literature on loving-kindness meditation (LKM) and compassion meditation (CM), suggesting they may increase positive affect and decrease negative affect. Preliminary evidence supports their use as adjuncts to empirically supported treatments for interpersonal and stress-related problems, but the literature is small and methodologically limited.

Key findings

  • LKM and CM are associated with increases in positive affect and decreases in negative affect; preliminary neuroendocrine studies suggest CM may reduce stress-induced subjective distress and immune response, and neuroimaging studies suggest they may enhance activation of brain areas involved in emotional processing and empathy.
  • Hutcherson et al. (2008) randomized 93 participants to LKM (n = 45) or imagery (n = 48); a brief 7-minute LKM exercise produced small to moderate changes in explicit and implicit positivity toward neutral strangers and the self.
  • Fredrickson et al. (2008) assigned employees to LKM (n = 102) or waitlist control (n = 100) in six 60-minute group sessions over 7 weeks; LKM increased a range of positive emotions and personal resources and reduced depressive symptoms, but effects were small and negative emotions did not substantially change.
  • Carson et al. (2005) compared 8-week LKM (n = 18) with standard care (n = 25) for chronic low back pain and found greater reductions in pain, anger, and psychological distress; Pace et al. (2009) randomized healthy adults to 6 weeks of CM (n = 33) or health discussions (n = 28) and found increased meditation practice was associated with decreased stress-induced interleukin-6 and subjective distress, though groups did not differ in plasma cortisol or interleukin-6.

Methods

  • Narrative review of the historical background, therapeutic techniques, and contemporary empirical literature on LKM and CM, including experimental, neuroendocrine, neuroimaging, and preliminary intervention studies.
  • The review synthesizes cited studies with varied designs and samples, such as randomized experiments, waitlist or standard-care comparisons, and small clinical pilot trials.
  • Main analysis is qualitative synthesis; no formal meta-analysis or new primary data collection is reported.

Limitations

  • The paper states that the research literature is small, empirical evidence is naturally limited, findings are very preliminary and should be evaluated with great caution, and there is remarkable variation in the techniques used across studies.
  • The paper notes specific limitations in cited studies: Pace et al. (2009) administered the stress test after rather than before CM training, and both Pace studies had problematic active control conditions; Gilbert and Procter (2006) lacked a standard diagnostic assessment; Mayhew and Gilbert (2008) had a small sample, high dropout, poorly controlled design, and inadequate assessment methods.
  • The paper also observes that comparing very short-term LKM with long-term training may be inappropriate because different mechanisms may be activated, and that Fredrickson et al. (2008) found no treatment benefits for reducing negative emotions, suggesting LKM and CM may require integration with mindfulness practices.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1016/j.cpr.2011.07.003

Cites

74 of 74 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 68 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingcitation

    LKM was associated with greater implicit positivity toward the self.

    “LKM was also associated with greater implicit positivity toward the self.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Hutcherson and colleagues (2008)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Findingnone given

    Preliminary findings from neuroendocrine studies indicate that CM may reduce stress-induced subjective distress and immune response.

    “Preliminary findings from neuroendocrine studies indicate that CM may reduce stress-induced subjective distress and immune response.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingcitation

    Changes in self-compassion appear to mediate benefits in depressive symptoms.

    “Furthermore, changes in self-compassion appear to mediate benefits in depressive symptoms.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kuyken and colleagues (2010)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Findingcitation

    A brief LKM exercise produced significantly greater explicit and implicit positivity toward neutral strangers relative to an imagery condition.

    “The results revealed a significantly greater effect of LKM on both explicit and implicit positivity toward neutral strangers relative to imagery.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Hutcherson and colleagues (2008)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Findingcitation

    LKM led to shifts in people's daily experiences of a wide range of positive emotions, including love, joy, contentment, gratitude, pride, hope, interest, amusement, and awe.

    “The results showed that LKM led to shifts in people’s daily experiences of a wide range of positive emotions, including love, joy, contentment, gratitude, pride, hope, interest, amusement, and awe.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Fredrickson and colleagues (2008)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims. 22
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 14

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Individuals with high levels of self-compassion reported less negative emotion when confronting real, imagined, or remembered negative events, were more willing to accept responsibility for negative events, but were less likely to ruminate about unpleasant events compared to individuals low in self-compassion.

    “Specifically, Leary and colleagues (2007) observed that individuals with high levels of self-compassion reported less negative emotion when confronting real, imagined, or remembered negative events, were more willing to accept responsibility for negative events, but were less likely to ruminate about unpleasant events compared to individuals low in self-compassion.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Leary and colleagues (2007)

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  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    For the implicit measure, the effect of LKM was only evident for its target, with little or no impact on responses toward strangers.

    “For the implicit measure, however, the effect of meditation was only evident for its target, with little or no impact on responses toward strangers.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Hutcherson and colleagues (2008)

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  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    LKM was associated with greater positive affect toward its target, as well as toward nontarget neutral strangers.

    “LKM was associated with greater positive affect toward its target, as well as toward nontarget neutral strangers.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Hutcherson and colleagues (2008)

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  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    The effects of LKM were specific to positive emotions, because negative emotions did not show any substantial changes.

    “Interestingly, the effects of LKM were specific to positive emotions, because negative emotions did not show any substantial changes.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Fredrickson and colleagues (2008)

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  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    More LKM practices were related to less pain that day and less anger the following day.

    “Multilevel analyses of daily recordings further showed that more LKM practices were related to less pain that day and less anger the following day.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Carson and colleagues (2005)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    These increases in positive emotions could be observed both within the trajectories of change in daily emotions over the span of 9 weeks and also 2 weeks after formal training ended.

    “These increases in positive emotions could be observed both within the trajectories of change in daily emotions over the span of 9 weeks and also 2 weeks after formal training ended.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Fredrickson and colleagues (2008)

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  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    The gains in personal resources led participants to become more satisfied with their lives and to experience fewer depressive symptoms.

    “Furthermore, the gains in personal resources led participants to become more satisfied with their lives and to experience fewer depressive symptoms.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Fredrickson and colleagues (2008)

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisereasoning

    Without the four immeasurables, whenever confronted by unpleasant or negative perceptions, one would be highly likely to come into an evaluative or ruminative state of mind and thus no longer be able to imagine or actually experience the emotional state as an object of attention and mindful awareness.

    “Without their presence, whenever confronted by unpleasant or negative perceptions (e.g., negative self-thoughts, disturbing emotions, or distressing images), one would be highly likely to come into an evaluative or ruminative state of mind and thus no longer be able to imagine or actually experience the emotional state as an object of attention and mindful awareness.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Without the four immeasurables, negative judgments interfere with sustained mindfulness, whether to the breath or to any other object of awareness.

    “Without them, negative judgments interfere with sustained mindfulness, whether to the breath or to any other object of awareness.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The four immeasurables, including loving-kindness and compassion, can be seen as attributes that underlie the nonjudgmental aspect of mindful awareness.

    “Consequently, the four immeasurables, including loving-kindness and compassion, can be seen as attributes that underlie the nonjudgmental aspect of mindful awareness.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Premisereasoning

    Only when we are able to confront difficult sensations, emotions or thoughts with a degree of kindness, compassion, and composure, can we attend to the variety and textures of present-moment experiences in a mindful way.

    “Only when we are able to confront difficult sensations emotions or thoughts with a degree of kindness, compassion, and composure, can we attend to the variety and textures of present-moment experiences in a mindful way.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The literature suggests that LKM and CM are associated with an increase in positive affect and a decrease in negative affect.

    “The literature suggests that LKM and CM are associated with an increase in positive affect and a decrease in negative affect.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    LKM may have led to a greater reduction in negative emotions as compared to other studies because participants might have had higher negative emotions at baseline.

    “However, it should be noted that LKM may have led to a greater reduction in negative emotions as compared to other studies because participants might have had higher negative emotions at baseline.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Carson and colleagues (2005)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Both forms of meditation (LKM and CM) are centrally related to, and include the practice of, mindfulness.

    “Both forms of meditation (LKM and CM) are centrally related to, and include the practice of, mindfulness, as noted by many scholars and practitioners from varying traditions, including Theravadin, Japanese, and Chinese Zen (e.g., Bodhi, 2005; Kuan, 2008; Sanharakshita, 2004; Shen-Yen, 2001; Suzuki, 2011).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Bodhi, 2005

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Kuan, 2008

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Sanharakshita, 2004

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In many Buddhist practices, LKM and CM are combined together, and such is the case in most psychological studies.

    “In many Buddhist practices, LKM and CM are combined together, and such is the case in most psychological studies (e.g., Kabat-Zinn, 1990; Lutz et al., 2009).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Kabat-Zinn, 1990

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Lutz et al., 2009 source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    These effects may result from applying just those affective qualities of kindness and acceptance-inherent to LKM and CM-to challenging momentary states.

    “These effects may result from applying just those affective qualities of kindness and acceptance- inherent to LKM and CM - to challenging momentary states.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In Lutz et al. (2009), the right middle insula showed a greater association with heart rate across subjects, and this association was stronger in the left middle insula when experts were compared to novices.

    “Furthermore, the right middle insula showed a greater association with heart rate across subjects. This association was stronger in the left middle insula when experts were compared to novices (Lutz et al., 2009).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Lutz et al., 2009 source

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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    The perception-action model of empathy states that observing and imagining another person in a particular state activates a similar state in the observer.

    “The perception-action model of empathy states that observing and imagining another person in a particular state activates a similar state in the observer (Preston & DeWaal, 2002).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Preston & DeWaal, 2002

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductcitation

    In the Pace et al. studies, CM was taught by a highly expert teacher while the active control was taught by graduate students with little expertise.

    “Second, the CM was taught by a highly expert teacher and practitioner with many years of training, whereas the active control was taught by graduate students with certainly little expertise, training or even practice with the protocol.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Pace et al., 2009 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Pace et al., 2010 source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    The techniques used by Gilbert and Procter (2006) and Mayhew & Gilbert (2008) have little to do with Buddhist forms of meditation, so it is doubtful that the procedure can be seriously compared to Buddhist approaches to LKM and CM.

    “Given the preliminary nature of these studies and the fact that the techniques have little to do with Buddhist forms of meditation, it is doubtful that the procedure can be seriously compared to Buddhist approaches to LKM and CM.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Gilbert & Procter, 2006 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Mayhew & Gilbert, 2008 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In Mayhew & Gilbert (2008), participants reported a decrease in depression, anxiety, and paranoia.

    “Furthermore, participants reported a decrease in depression, anxiety, and paranoia.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Mayhew & Gilbert, 2008 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Concentrative and self-investigative skills, a quiet mind and self-compassion may conceivably be necessary prerequisites for the cultivation of compassion to others.

    “Concentrative and self-investigative skills, a quiet mind and self-compassion may conceivably be necessary prerequisites for the cultivation of compassion to others.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    LKM and CM may well be efficacious techniques when added to existing empirically supported therapies, such as cognitive behavioral treatments.

    “In the Buddhist tradition, LKM and CM have traditionally been combined with other meditation practices—such as multi-sensorial mindfulness--and may well be efficacious techniques when added to existing empirically supported therapies, such as cognitive behavioral treatments.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: In the Buddhist tradition, LKM and CM have traditionally been combined with other meditation practices such as multi-sensorial mindfulness.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    CM may reduce stress-induced subjective distress and immune response.

    “These results suggest that CM reduces stress-induced subjective distress and immune response.”
    • Also stated in: § Discussion · hedged
      “Neuroendocrine studies suggest that CM may reduce stress-induced subjective distress and immune response (Pace et al., 2009; 2010).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Pace et al., 2009 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Pace et al., 2010 source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In Lutz et al. (2008), during meditation, insula activation was greater during presentation of negative sounds than positive or neutral sounds in expert relative to novice meditators, and degree of insula activation was associated with self-reported intensity of meditation in both groups.

    “Results showed that during meditation, activation in the insula was greater during presentation of negative sounds than positive or neutral sounds in the expert relative to the novice meditators, and that the degree of insula activation was associated with self-reported intensity of the meditation in both groups.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Lutz et al., 2008

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Meditation increased activity in the amygdala and in the right temporal parietal juncture, an area implicated in empathy and perceiving mental and emotional states of others.

    “Furthermore, meditation increased activity in the amygdala, which is crucial for the processing of emotional stimuli, and in the right temporal parietal juncture, an area that is implicated in empathy and when perceiving mental and emotional states of others.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Lutz et al., 2008

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Lutz et al., 2009 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • Rests on an assumption: The amygdala is crucial for processing emotional stimuli, and the right temporal parietal juncture is implicated in empathy and perceiving mental and emotional states of others.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    This may also account for the fact that mindfulness meditation is typically first learned before LKM and CM are practiced.

    “This may also account for the fact that mindfulness meditation is typically first learned before LKM and CM are practiced (e.g., Kabat-Zinn, 1990).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kabat-Zinn, 1990

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationnone given

    Very little data exist on LKM and CM as a clinical intervention method.

    “Very little data exist on LKM and CM as a clinical intervention method.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In Pace et al. (2009), increased meditation practice was associated with decreased stress-induced interleukin-6 and subjective reports of distress in the meditation group.

    “However, increased meditation practice was associated with decreased stress-induced interleukin-6 and subjective reports of distress in the meditation group.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Pace et al., 2009 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    These findings are very preliminary and have to be evaluated with great caution.

    “Furthermore, these findings are very preliminary and have to be evaluated with great caution.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Existing research studies suggest that LKM and CM are highly promising practices for improving positive affect and for reducing stress and negative affect such as anxiety and mood symptoms.

    “In sum, existing research studies suggest that LKM and CM are highly promising practices for improving positive affect and for reducing stress and negative affect such as anxiety and mood symptoms.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    When effects upon LKM were examined alone in Fredrickson et al. (2008), effects upon positive emotions were significant but small, and there were no treatment benefits upon reduction of negative emotions.

    “When effects upon LKM were examined alone in an intervention trial (Fredrickson et al., 2008), effects upon positive emotions were significant but small, and contrary to major assumptions of Buddhist psychology, there were no treatment benefits upon reduction of negative emotions.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Fredrickson et al., 2008 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationcitation

    This may suggest that CM and LKM techniques require integration with mindfulness practices.

    “This may suggest that CM and LKM techniques require integration with mindfulness practices, and future research in this area is clearly needed.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Fredrickson et al., 2008 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Gilbert and Procter (2006) and Mayhew and Gilbert (2008) developed an intervention that combines techniques from many other treatment approaches and encourages patients to cultivate self-compassion, which only vaguely resembles the initial stage of LKM.

    “Likewise, Gilbert and Procter (2006) and Mayhew and Gilbert (2008) developed an intervention that combines techniques from many other treatment approaches and encourages patients to cultivate self-compassion, which only vaguely resembles the initial stage of LKM.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Gilbert & Procter, 2006 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Mayhew & Gilbert, 2008 source

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34 of 34

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    By mindfully investigating what occurs when one attempts to generate loving-kindness or compassion, insight is gained into the nature of these emotions themselves, as well as one’s personal relationships to them.

    “Rather, by mindfully investigating what occurs when one attempts to generate loving-kindness or compassion, it is presumed that insight is gained into the nature of these emotions themselves, as well as one’s personal relationships to them.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Turning toward the focus of experience in a kind, open, patient and tolerant manner causes a shift in affective states toward greater loving-kindness and compassion.

    “Also by turning toward this focus of experience in a kind, open, patient and tolerant manner, a shift in these affective states toward greater loving-kindness and compassion is thought to take place.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    In the Buddhist tradition, LKM and CM have traditionally been combined with other meditation practices such as multi-sensorial mindfulness.

    “In the Buddhist tradition, LKM and CM have traditionally been combined with other meditation practices—such as multi-sensorial mindfulness--and may well be efficacious techniques when added to existing empirically supported therapies, such as cognitive behavioral treatments.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The insula is important in detecting emotions and in mapping physiological symptoms to emotions and making this information available to other parts of the brain.

    “The insula is important in detecting emotions and in mapping physiological symptoms to emotions (such as heart rate) and to make this information available to other parts of the brain.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The amygdala is crucial for processing emotional stimuli, and the right temporal parietal juncture is implicated in empathy and perceiving mental and emotional states of others.

    “Furthermore, meditation increased activity in the amygdala, which is crucial for the processing of emotional stimuli, and in the right temporal parietal juncture, an area that is implicated in empathy and when perceiving mental and emotional states of others.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    LKM and CM abilities take considerable time and practice to develop.

    “Examining the effects of these practices in a laboratory by giving brief instructions to novices goes against the very basic Buddhist assumption that these abilities take considerable time and practice to develop (see Grossman, 2010).”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The Buddhist tradition conceptualizes metta and karuna as the two brahma viharas that are incompatible with anger, hatred, envy, and jealousy.

    “The Buddhist tradition conceptualizes metta and karuna as being the two brahma viharas that are incompatible with anger, hatred, envy, and jealousy.”
7 of 7

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • Previous articles have reviewed the clinical benefits of compassion meditation (CM) and loving kindness meditation (LKM), both of which include a concern with stimulating positive other-centred emotions.

    “Previous articles have reviewed the clinical benefits of compassion meditation (CM) and loving kindness meditation (LKM), both of which include a concern with stimulating positive other-centred emotions17–19.”

    From The limited prosocial effects of meditation: A systematic review and meta-analysis (2018) · cites this paper as [18]

  • LKM has yet to be applied to infertility.

    “Although mindfulness approaches have proven to be of limited efficacy for infertility-related distress, one mindfulness-based approach that has yet to be applied to infertility is loving-kindness meditation (LKM),41 which seems to map on well to both shame/self-blame and severed relationships with others.”

    From Infertility-related distress and clinical targets for psychotherapy: A qualitative study (2021) · cites this paper as [41]

    The Discussion and Treatment Studies sections describe applications of LKM, but neither states whether it has been applied to infertility. Searches for infertility and related fertility terms found no passage addressing that point; its absence from the studies reviewed does not establish that it had never been applied. (LLM, conf=0.72)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Loving-kindness and compassion meditation are grounded in the belief that all living beings are interconnected, promoting emotional flexibility and psychological well-being.

    “These methods are grounded in the belief that all living beings are interconnected, promoting emotional flexibility and psychological well-being [344,345].”

    From Comprehensive review of chronic stress pathways and the efficacy of behavioral stress reduction programs (BSRPs) in managing diseases. (2024) · cites this paper as [344]

  • Cultivating compassion for self and others has become a central focus for the development of psychotherapies.

    “Cultivating compassion for self and others has also become a central focus for the development of psychotherapies [35, 37, 40, 61, 67, 69, 77, 96].”

    From The development of compassionate engagement and action scales for self and others (2017) · cites this paper as [61]

  • When integrated into the form of meditation, loving-kindness has been linked to reduced symptoms of negative emotions (e.g., anxiety and depression) and improved self-reported health.

    “when integrated into the form of meditation, loving-kindness has been linked to reduced symptoms of negative emotions (e.g., anxiety and depression) and improved self-reported health”

    From Leveraging an Arts-Based Approach to Foster Engagement, Nurture Kindness, and Prevent Violence (2025) · cites this paper as Hofmann et al., 2011

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

  • Enrolment total does not match the reported sex counts

    Minor

    The reported 4 men and 4 women account for 8 patients, not the stated 9 initially enrolled.

    Reported 9 · recomputed 8

1 of 1

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 2

  1. Grossman, P. (in press). Defining mindfulness by “how poorly I think I pay attention during everyday awareness” and other intractable problems for psychology's (re)invention of mindfulness. Psychological Assessment.
  2. Hinton, D. E., Pich, V., Nickerson, A., Hofmann, S. G., & Otto, M. W. (in press). Mindfulness and acceptance techniques as applied to refugee and ethnic minority populations: Examples from culturally adapted CBT (CA-CBT). Cognitive and Behavioral Practice.

Cited by

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Related

Authors
Hofmann, S. G., Grossman, P., & Hinton, D. E.
Affiliations
  • Boston University (US)
  • University Hospital of Basel (CH)
  • Harvard University (US)
Corresponding author
Hofmann, Stefan G.
ORCID
Venue
Clinical Psychology Review
Publisher
Elsevier BV
Published
2011-11
Volume
31
Issue
7
Pages
1126-1132
ISSN
0272-7358 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1016/j.cpr.2011.07.003
PMC
PMC3176989
OpenAlex
W2145585447
Semantic Scholar
f31cb13a982557f8c3d6defb28125b0bd3888485
Cited by
960
References
71
Citations by year
2026: 51 · 2025: 82 · 2024: 69 · 2023: 66 · 2022: 83 · 2021: 65 · 2020: 86 · 2019: 69 · 2018: 64 · 2017: 72 · 2016: 61 · 2015: 51 · 2014: 77 · 2013: 39 · 2012: 19
FWCI
6.70
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Clinical Psychology Review (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
Funders
National Institute of Mental Health (R01MH078308)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Mindfulness and Compassion Interventions
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Psychological Well-being and Life Satisfaction
  • Social Sciences › Health › Religion, Spirituality, and Psychology
Keywords
loving-kindness meditation, compassion meditation, mindfulness-based interventions, positive affect, negative affect, stress response, immune response, neuroendocrine effects, brain activation, empathy, cognitive behavioral therapy, depression, social anxiety, marital conflict, anger, caregiving stress
MeSH terms
Adaptation, Psychological, Empathy, Humans, Love, Meditation

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-09.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-09.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

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