Redefining the concept of reactive astrocytes as cells that remain within their unique domains upon reaction to injury
Open accessAbstract
Reactive astrocytes in neurotrauma, stroke, or neurodegeneration are thought to undergo cellular hypertrophy, based on their morphological appearance revealed by immunohistochemical detection of glial fibrillary acidic protein, vimentin, or nestin, all of them forming intermediate filaments, a part of the cytoskeleton. Here, we used a recently established dye-filling method to reveal the full three-dimensional shape of astrocytes assessing the morphology of reactive astrocytes in two neurotrauma models. Both in the denervated hippocampal region and the lesioned cerebral cortex, reactive astrocytes increased the thickness of their main cellular processes but did not extend to occupy a greater volume of tissue than nonreactive astrocytes. Despite this hypertrophy of glial fibrillary acidic protein-containing cellular processes, interdigitation between adjacent hippocampal astrocytes remained minimal. This work helps to redefine the century-old concept of hypertrophy of reactive astrocytes.
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Astrocytes are activated in response to acute or chronic central nervous system injury, characterized by hypertrophy of proximal processes and up-regulation of GFAP and Vim.
“Astrocytes are activated in response to acute or chronic central nervous system injury. The activated state is characterized by hypertrophy of proximal processes and up-regulation of the intermediate filament (nanofilament) proteins glial fibrillary acid protein (GFAP) and vimentin (Vim) (15, 16).”
From Attenuating astrocyte activation accelerates plaque pathogenesis in APP/PS1 mice (2013) · cites this paper as [16]
The Results and Discussion report astrocyte activation after injury and thickening of the main GFAP-containing processes. The introductory passage (labeled Abstract in our copy; page unavailable) reports increased GFAP expression and intermediate filaments in reactive astrocytes, and names vimentin as an intermediate-filament marker, but does not specifically establish vimentin up-regulation. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIncreased GFAP immunoreactivity largely reflects changes in the astrocytic cytoskeleton and tends to exaggerate the degree of hypertrophy because, except for scar-border astrocytes, the volume accessed by reactive astrocytes does not change, as they remain in their territorial domains.
“Increased GFAP immunoreactivity largely reflects changes in the astrocytic cytoskeleton and tends to exaggerate the degree of hypertrophy because, with the exception of scar-border astrocytes, the volume accessed by reactive astrocytes does not change, as they remain in their territorial domains23.”
From Reactive astrocyte nomenclature, definitions, and future directions (2021) · cites this paper as [23]
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Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredImmunostaining with individual antibodies cannot reveal the full extent of astrocyte morphology.
“Because immunostaining with individual antibodies cannot reveal the full extent of astrocyte morphology (16), we expressed GFP in astrocytes in vivo to observe the complete cellular profile of the cells.”
From Attenuating astrocyte activation accelerates plaque pathogenesis in APP/PS1 mice (2013) · cites this paper as [16]
Dye-filling methods can visualize whole astrocytes in mice and in human brain samples from surgical resections.
“Further, dye-filling methods can be used to visualize whole astrocytes in mice23, as well as in human brain samples from surgical resections (Fig. 1b)24.”
From Reactive astrocyte nomenclature, definitions, and future directions (2021) · cites this paper as [23]
Reactive astrocytes are an activated form of astrocytes in response to toxic materials.
“Regarding the form of astrocytes, reactive astrocytes are an activated form of astrocytes in response to toxic materials [49].”
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“own domains, showing little interdigitation or overlap of territories (Wilhelmsson et al., 2006).”
BackgroundNeuroglia in neurodegeneration
Heneka, M. T., Rodriguez, J. J., & Verkhratsky, A. (2009) · Brain Research Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.brainresrev.2009.11.004 · Cited by 303 · see citing works
Neuronal activity determines distinct gliotransmitter release from a single astrocyte
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“Rodent hippocampal astrocytes occupy separate anatomical domains with minimal overlap between astrocytic processes (Bushong et al., 2002; Halassa et al., 2007; Wilhelmsson et al., 2006), thus it is likely that a single synapse may spatially interact with only a single astrocyte (see Figure 1A), which suggests that a s…”
BackgroundDeciphering the astrocyte reaction in Alzheimer's disease
Perez-Nievas, B. G., & Serrano-Pozo, A. (2018) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2018.00114 · Cited by 282 · see citing works
“D), 200 µm in (E), and 50 µm in insets 1–3. the neuropil despite the hypertrophy and increased number of their main processes (Wilhelmsson et al., 2006).”
BackgroundImproved tools to study astrocytes
Yu, X., Nagai, J., & Khakh, B. S. (2020) · Nature Reviews Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/s41583-020-0264-8 · Cited by 298 · see citing works
Lipocalin-2 Is an Autocrine Mediator of Reactive Astrocytosis
Lee, S., Park, J., Lee, W., Kim, H., Park, H., Mori, K., & Suk, K. (2009) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.5273-08.2009 · Cited by 280 · see citing works
“This type of morphological change in astrocytes is similar to what occurs in reactive astrocytosis in vivo (Boukhelifa et al., 2003; Lin and Cai, 2004; Wilhelmsson et al., 2006).”
ResultReactive gliosis in the pathogenesis of CNS diseases
Pekny, M., & Pekna, M. (2015) · Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Molecular Basis of Disease · doi:10.1016/j.bbadis.2015.11.014 · Cited by 276 · see citing works
Loss of astrocytic domain organization in the epileptic brain
Oberheim, N. A., Tian, G.-F., Han, X., Peng, W., Takano, T., Ransom, B., & Nedergaard, M. (2008) · The Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.4980-07.2008 · Cited by 303 · see citing works
“This difference may also explain why a recent report con- cluded that the size of astrocytic domains did not increase during reactive gliosis (Wilhelmsson et al., 2006).”
BackgroundInfluentialWhite, N. S., Leergaard, T. B., D'Arceuil, H. E., Bjaalie, J. G., & Dale, A. M. (2012) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.21454 · Cited by 263 · see citing works
“(B) Maximum projections of dye-filled, nonreactive astrocytes in layer IV [reprinted from Wilhelmsson et al., 2006 with permission].”
BackgroundQuestions and (some) answers on reactive astrocytes
Escartin, C., Guillemaud, O., & Carrillo‐de Sauvage, M. (2019) · Glia · doi:10.1002/glia.23687 · Cited by 275 · see citing works
“Scale bar: 25 μm (Wilhelmsson et al., 2006).”
BackgroundFunctional polarization of neuroglia: Implications in neuroinflammation and neurological disorders
Jha, M. K., Lee, W., & Suk, K. (2015) · Biochemical Pharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.bcp.2015.11.003 · Cited by 260 · see citing works
Motori, E., Puyal, J., Toni, N., Ghanem, A., Angeloni, C., Malaguti, M., Cantelli-Forti, G., Berninger, B., Conzelmann, K.-K., Götz, M., et al. (2013) · Cell Metabolism · doi:10.1016/j.cmet.2013.11.005 · Cited by 249 · see citing works
Reactive astrocytes and therapeutic potential in focal ischemic stroke
Choudhury, G. R., & Ding, S. (2015) · Neurobiology of Disease · doi:10.1016/j.nbd.2015.05.003 · Cited by 256 · see citing works
Human astrocytes in the diseased brain
Dossi, E., Vasile, F., & Rouach, N. (2018) · Brain Research Bulletin · doi:10.1016/j.brainresbull.2017.02.001 · Cited by 250 · see citing works
Astrocyte dysfunction in Alzheimer disease
Acosta, C., Anderson, H. D., & Anderson, C. M. (2017) · Journal of Neuroscience Research · doi:10.1002/jnr.24075 · Cited by 248 · see citing works
“…associated with excessive proliferation, process interdigitation, loss of spatial domain exclusivity, reorganization of parenchymal architecture (Wilhelmsson et al., 2006; Sofroniew, 2009; Sofroniew and Vinters, 2010; Sun and Jakobs, 2012; Anderson et al., 2014), and disruption of astrocytic…”
BackgroundProgression in translational research on spinal cord injury based on microenvironment imbalance
Fan, B., Wei, Z., & Feng, S. (2022) · Bone Research · doi:10.1038/s41413-022-00199-9 · Cited by 248 · see citing works
“These astrocytes eventually become scar-forming astrocytes, which prevent axonal regeneration and nerve repair through a process known as reactive astrogliosis.(90) In the scar formation stage, type I collagen is expressed at high levels in the spinal cord and induces astrocytic scar formation through the integrin-N-c…”
BackgroundThe Role of Microglia and Astrocytes in Huntington’s Disease
Palpagama, T. H., Waldvogel, H. J., Faull, R. L. M., & Kwakowsky, A. (2019) · Frontiers in Molecular Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnmol.2019.00258 · Cited by 241 · see citing works
“Here, astrocytes undergo significant morphological changes along with significant gene expression alterations (Wilhelmsson et al., 2006; Sofroniew, 2009), they become hypertrophic and show enhanced GFAP expression (Ben Haim et al.”
BackgroundWalker, F. R., Beynon, S. B., Jones, K., Zhao, Z., Kongsui, R., Cairns, M. J., & Nilsson, M. (2014) · Brain Behavior and Immunity · doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2013.12.010 · Cited by 237 · see citing works
Cell migration in the normal and pathological postnatal mammalian brain
Cayre, M., Canoll, P., & Goldman, J. E. (2009) · Progress in Neurobiology · doi:10.1016/j.pneurobio.2009.02.001 · Cited by 235 · see citing works
“Upon injury, local astrocytes undergo morphological modifications, with somata and processes hypertrophy, up-regulation of GFAP and re-expression of markers such as vimentin and nestin (Miyake et al., 1988; Wilhelmsson et al., 2006).”
BackgroundAstrocyte activation and reactive gliosis—A new target in stroke?
Pekny, M., Wilhelmsson, U., Tatlisumak, T., & Pekna, M. (2018) · Neuroscience Letters · doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2018.07.021 · Cited by 231 · see citing works
Risher, W. C., Andrew, R. D., & Kirov, S. A. (2009) · Glia · doi:10.1002/glia.20747 · Cited by 223 · see citing works
“This finding is in accordance with a previous study showing process swelling without expansion of the astroglial domain following stroke and other conditions of brain injury (Wilhelmsson et al., 2006).”
ResultGlial Cells Shape Pathology and Repair After Spinal Cord Injury
Gaudet, A. D., & Fonken, L. K. (2018) · Neurotherapeutics · doi:10.1007/s13311-018-0630-7 · Cited by 232 · see citing works
“trocyte proliferation and does not cause individual astrocyte domains to overlap with one another [93].”
BackgroundBaldwin, K. T., Murai, K. K., & Khakh, B. S. (2023) · Trends in Cell Biology · doi:10.1016/j.tcb.2023.09.006 · Cited by 230 · see citing works
Astrocytes: Integrative Regulators of Neuroinflammation in Stroke and Other Neurological Diseases
Cekanaviciute, E., & Buckwalter, M. S. (2016) · Neurotherapeutics · doi:10.1007/s13311-016-0477-8 · Cited by 229 · see citing works
“Although the astrocytes farther away from the injury site also become hypertrophied, they do not form bundles, and retain their original nonoverlapping domains instead [83, 84].”
BackgroundSchiweck, J., Eickholt, B. J., & Murk, K. (2018) · Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fncel.2018.00261 · Cited by 223 · see citing works
Structural Remodeling of Astrocytes in the Injured CNS
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Kassem, M. S., Lagopoulos, J., Stait‐Gardner, T., Price, W. S., Chohan, T. W., Arnold, J. C., Hatton, S. N., & Bennett, M. R. (2012) · Molecular Neurobiology · doi:10.1007/s12035-012-8365-7 · Cited by 212 · see citing works
“Deafferentation of some nuclei leads to a substantial increase in glia, presumably due to an increase in the primary processes of astrocytes [107], as reactive astrocytes are known to increase the diameter of their primary processes without changes in their length or in the extent of the large number of small processe…”
BackgroundGap Junction-Mediated Astrocytic Networks in the Mouse Barrel Cortex
Houades, V., Koulakoff, A., Ezan, P., Seif, I., & Giaume, C. (2008) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.5100-07.2008 · Cited by 216 · see citing works
“In addition, although immunostaining with GFAP antibodies and GFAP-eGFP labeling resulted in a rather low percentage of cells identified as astrocytes because of the well known low level of GFAP expression in astrocytes from the cerebral cortex of the mouse (Nimmerjahn et al., 2004; Houades et al., 2006; Wilhelmsson e…”
BackgroundThe glial scar in spinal cord injury and repair
Yuan, Y., & He, C. (2013) · Neuroscience Bulletin · doi:10.1007/s12264-013-1358-3 · Cited by 212 · see citing works
Fluorescent Diagnostic Probes in Neurodegenerative Diseases
Zhou, J., Jangili, P., Son, S., Ji, M. S., Won, M., & Kim, J. S. (2020) · Advanced Materials · doi:10.1002/adma.202001945 · Cited by 206 · see citing works
Glia and alpha-synuclein in neurodegeneration: A complex interaction
Brück, D., Wenning, G. K., Stefanova, N., & Fellner, L. (2015) · Neurobiology of Disease · doi:10.1016/j.nbd.2015.03.003 · Cited by 202 · see citing works
“Due to various stimuli, e.g. infection or injury, astroglial and microglial cells get activated (Nimmerjahn et al., 2005; Wilhelmsson et al., 2006).”
Liu, Z., Li, Y., Cui, Y., Roberts, C. J., Lü, M., Wilhelmsson, U., Pekny, M., & Chopp, M. (2014) · Glia · doi:10.1002/glia.22723 · Cited by 200 · see citing works
“…show similar abundance and access comparable volumes of brain tissue as astrocytes of wild-type mice (Wilhelmsson et al., 2004), but do not exhibit the reactive phenotype with characteristic hypertrophic processes as astrocytes in wild-type mice (Li et al., 2008; Wilhelmsson et al., 2004, 2006).”
BackgroundOlabarria, M., Noristani, H. N., Verkhratsky, A., & Rodriguez, J. J. (2011) · Molecular Neurodegeneration · doi:10.1186/1750-1326-6-55 · Cited by 199 · see citing works
“Astrocytes, as a component of the tripartite synapse, modulate neurotransmission and control the extracellular level of neurotransmitters [6-11].”
BackgroundFunctions of Mature Mammalian Astrocytes: A Current View
Kimelberg, H. K. (2010) · The Neuroscientist · doi:10.1177/1073858409342593 · Cited by 199 · see citing works
Outside in: Unraveling the Role of Neuroinflammation in the Progression of Parkinson's Disease
Troncoso-Escudero, P., Parra, A., Nassif, M., & Vidal, R. L. (2018) · Frontiers in Neurology · doi:10.3389/fneur.2018.00860 · Cited by 191 · see citing works
“Reactive astrocytes experience changes in gene expression (69) and in morphology (70), which leads to the formation of a glial scar in the site of injury.”
BackgroundReactive astrocytes in Alzheimer’s disease: A double-edged sword
Chun, H., & Lee, C. J. (2018) · Neuroscience Research · doi:10.1016/j.neures.2017.11.012 · Cited by 176 · see citing works
The morphology and spatial arrangement of astrocytes in the optic nerve head of the mouse
Sun, D., Lye‐Barthel, M., Masland, R. H., & Jakobs, T. (2009) · The Journal of Comparative Neurology · doi:10.1002/cne.22058 · Cited by 180 · see citing works
“Upon injury, astrocytes in the lesioned cortex and hippocampus remain within their domains, still showing minimal overlap (Wilhelmsson et al., 2006).”
BackgroundMethodRossi, D. (2015) · Progress in Neurobiology · doi:10.1016/j.pneurobio.2015.04.003 · Cited by 178 · see citing works
The Role of Astrocytes and Complement System in Neural Plasticity
Pekny, M., Wilhelmsson, U., Bogestål, Y. R., & Pekna, M. (2007) · International review of neurobiology · doi:10.1016/s0074-7742(07)82005-8 · Cited by 173 · see citing works
Reactive glial cells: increased stiffness correlates with increased intermediate filament expression
Lu, Y., Iandiev, I., Hollborn, M., Körber, N., Ulbricht, E., Hirrlinger, P. G., Pannicke, T., Wei, E., Bringmann, A., Wolburg, H., et al. (2011) · The FASEB Journal · doi:10.1096/fj.10-163790 · Cited by 172 · see citing works
“IFs and IF proteins are commonly used as markers of normal and reactive glial cells (9, 24, 27), but their physiological and pathophysiological functions are poorly understood (10).”
BackgroundSelf-citationAstrocyte dystrophy in ageing brain parallels impaired synaptic plasticity
Popov, A., Brazhe, A., Denisov, P., Sutyagina, O. I., Li, L., Lazareva, N. B., Verkhratsky, A., & Semyanov, A. V. (2021) · Aging Cell · doi:10.1111/acel.13334 · Cited by 172 · see citing works
Astrocyte-Secreted Matricellular Proteins in CNS Remodelling during Development and Disease
Jones, E. V., & Bouvier, D. S. (2014) · Neural Plasticity · doi:10.1155/2014/321209 · Cited by 169 · see citing works
“Astrocyte reactivity is contextual [13] and leads to numerous morphological changes, such as an increase in the number and volume of processes [149], extension and elongation [150], and polarisation of processes around sites of injury [151].”
BackgroundTyzack, G. E., Sitnikov, S., Barson, D. G., Adams-Carr, K. L., Lau, N. K., Kwok, J. C. F., Zhao, C., Franklin, R. J. M., Káradóttir, R. T., Fawcett, J. W., et al. (2014) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/ncomms5294 · Cited by 166 · see citing works
Garcia, K. O., Ornellas, F. M., Martin, P. K. M., Patti, C. L., Mello, L. E., Frussa‐Filho, R., Han, S. W., & Longo, B. M. (2014) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2014.00030 · Cited by 168 · see citing works
“The GFAP-positive reactive astrocyte responses were associated with the increase of Aβ plaque deposits (Wilhelmsson et al., 2006; Kamphuis et al., 2012).”
BackgroundMechanisms of Endogenous Neuroprotective Effects of Astrocytes in Brain Injury
Bylicky, M. A., Mueller, G. P., & Day, R. M. (2018) · Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity · doi:10.1155/2018/6501031 · Cited by 165 · see citing works
“The primary alterations in the transformation of normal astrocytes to reactive astrocytes include hypertrophy of their main cellular processes, proliferation, and alterations in protein expression [32, 50, 51].”
BackgroundInfluentialJurisch‐Yaksi, N., Yaksi, E., & Kızıl, Ç. (2020) · Glia · doi:10.1002/glia.23849 · Cited by 156 · see citing works
“(c) Dye-filled mouse hippocampal astrocyte from (Wilhelmsson et al., 2006) A: anterior, P: posterior, M: medial, L: lateral.”
Satellite glial cells in sympathetic and parasympathetic ganglia: In search of function
Menachem Hanani, A. (2010) · Brain Research Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.brainresrev.2010.04.009 · Cited by 164 · see citing works
Glial dysfunction in the pathogenesis of α-synucleinopathies: emerging concepts
Fellner, L., Jellinger, K. A., Wenning, G. K., & Stefanova, N. (2011) · Acta Neuropathologica · doi:10.1007/s00401-011-0833-z · Cited by 162 · see citing works
“This includes changes in morphology and in the molecular expression pattern [255].”
BackgroundMcCaslin, A. F. H., Chen, B. R., Radosevich, A. J., Cauli, B., & Hillman, E. M. C. (2010) · Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow & Metabolism · doi:10.1038/jcbfm.2010.204 · Cited by 158 · see citing works
“Furthermore, in addition to physical tissue damage, various brain insults have been shown to trigger reactive astrocytosis, leading to the upregulated expression of the common astrocyte marker glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) and changes in astrocyte morphology (”
BackgroundIntermediate filaments and stress
Pekny, M., & Lane, E. B. (2007) · Experimental Cell Research · doi:10.1016/j.yexcr.2007.04.023 · Cited by 174 · see citing works
An Optical Neuron-Astrocyte Proximity Assay at Synaptic Distance Scales
Octeau, J. C., Chai, H., Jiang, R., Bonanno, S. L., Martin, K. C., & Khakh, B. S. (2018) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2018.03.003 · Cited by 154 · see citing works
“Individual astrocytes contain thousands of processes that form well-delineated bushy territories that overlap by as little as 5% at their boundaries (Bushong et al., 2002, 2004; Halassa et al., 2007; Livet et al., 2007; Wilhelmsson et al., 2006).”
BackgroundMorphological plasticity of astroglia: Understanding synaptic microenvironment
Heller, J. P., & Rusakov, D. A. (2015) · Glia · doi:10.1002/glia.22821 · Cited by 150 · see citing works
“Recently, quantitative threedimensional EM data have suggested that cellular organelles associated with Ca21 signaling indeed tend to occur inside astroglia at some distance from the nearby excitatory synapses (Patrushev et al., 2013).”
BackgroundEngineered lentiviral vector targeting astrocytes <i>In vivo</i>
Colin, A., Faideau, M., Dufour, N., Auregan, G., Hassig, R., Andrieu, T., Brouillet, E., Hantraye, P., Bonvento, G., & Déglon, N. (2009) · Glia · doi:10.1002/glia.20795 · Cited by 158 · see citing works
“…the use of fluorescent reporter genes could help to resolve unanswered questions concerning the full three-dimensional structure and organization of spatial domains of control (Bushong et al., 2002; Halassa et al., 2007) or activated astrocytes (Oberheim et al., 2008; Wilhelmsson et al., 2006).”
BackgroundThe role of neuroinflammation on the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease
Chung, Y. C., Ko, H. W., Bok, E., Park, E. S., Huh, S. H., Nam, J. H., & Jin, B. K. (2010) · BMB Reports · doi:10.5483/bmbrep.2010.43.4.225 · Cited by 148 · see citing works
“formed to reactive form have enlarged bodies and thick dendrites in response to various stimuli (51, 52).”
BackgroundThe role of astrocyte structural plasticity in regulating neural circuit function and behavior
Lawal, O., Ulloa Severino, F. P., & Eroglu, C. (2022) · Glia · doi:10.1002/glia.24191 · Cited by 142 · see citing works
“Some studies addressing this knowledge gap have utilized cell-filling dyes to investigate the actual three-dimensional morphology of reactive astrocytes (Bardehle et al., 2013; Wilhelmsson et al., 2006).”
BackgroundNijs, J., Loggia, M. L., Polli, A., Moens, M., Huysmans, E., Goudman, L., Meeus, M., Vanderweeën, L., Ickmans, K., & Clauw, D. J. (2017) · Expert Opinion on Therapeutic Targets · doi:10.1080/14728222.2017.1353603 · Cited by 143 · see citing works
“For instance, in addition to stress and sleep problems, animal work suggests that neurotrauma results in aberrant glial activation [120].”
BackgroundCocaine-mediated microglial activation involves the ER stress-autophagy axis.
Guo, M.-L., Liao, K., Periyasamy, P., Yang, L., Cai, Y., Callen, S. E., & Buch, S. (2015) · Autophagy · doi:10.1080/15548627.2015.1052205 · Cited by 136 · see citing works
- Authors
- Wilhelmsson, U., Bushong, E. A., Price, D. L., Smarr, B. L., Phung, V., Terada, M., Ellisman, M. H., & Pekny, M.
- Affiliations
- University of Gothenburg (SE)
- University of California San Diego (US)
- Corresponding author
- Pekny, Milos
- ORCID
- Venue
- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
- Publisher
- National Academy of Sciences
- Published
- 2006-11-14
- Volume
- 103
- Issue
- 46
- Pages
- 17513-17518
- ISSN
- 0027-8424 (ISSN-L)
- 1091-6490
- PMC
- PMC1859960
- OpenAlex
- W1969305530
- Cited by
- 643
- References
- 34
- Citations by year
- 2026: 17 · 2025: 33 · 2024: 41 · 2023: 45 · 2022: 40 · 2021: 56 · 2020: 35 · 2019: 36 · 2018: 40 · 2017: 40 · 2016: 35 · 2015: 42 · 2014: 35 · 2013: 30 · 2012: 30
- FWCI
- 10.99
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Cancer Institute (CA4084314)
- National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (R01NS014718, NS046068, R01NS046068, NS014718)
- National Center for Research Resources (P41RR004050, RR004050)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Neurology › Neuroinflammation and Neurodegeneration Mechanisms
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Neurology › Traumatic Brain Injury and Neurovascular Disturbances
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neuroscience and Neuropharmacology Research
- Keywords
- reactive astrocytes, astrocyte hypertrophy, astrocyte morphology, glial fibrillary acidic protein, intermediate filaments, neurotrauma, cerebral cortex lesions
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Astrocytes, Brain Injuries, Female, Cell Shape, Mice
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