Genetic analysis of social-class mobility in five longitudinal studies
Open accessAbstract
Significance: Genome-wide association study (GWAS) discoveries about educational attainment have raised questions about the meaning of the genetics of success. These discoveries could offer clues about biological mechanisms or, because children inherit genetics and social class from parents, education-linked genetics could be spurious correlates of socially transmitted advantages. To distinguish between these hypotheses, we studied social mobility in five cohorts from three countries. We found that people with more education-linked genetics were more successful compared with parents and siblings. We also found mothers’ education-linked genetics predicted their children’s attainment over and above the children’s own genetics, indicating an environmentally mediated genetic effect. Findings reject pure social-transmission explanations of education GWAS discoveries. Instead, genetics influences attainment directly through social mobility and indirectly through family environments.
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The unexplained remainder of the mate-pair PGI correlation is due to assortment on phenotypes correlated with the EA PGI other than EA, cognitive performance, and vocabulary-possibly including personality traits-and sources of social homogamy other than genetic ancestry captured by the top 40 PCs-possibly including geographic location at courtship age, socioeconomic status, and social class.
“This remainder is due to assortment on phenotypes correlated with the EA PGI other than EA, cognitive performance, and vocabulary—possibly including various personality traits42-44—and sources of social homogamy other than genetic ancestry captured by the top 40 PCs—possibly including geographic location at courtship age45,46, socioeconomic status, and social class47.”
From Polygenic prediction of educational attainment within and between families from genome-wide association analyses in 3 million individuals (2022) · cites this paper as [47]
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“Therefore, it is not surprising that the prediction of educational achievement from family SES is in part mediated by GPS (Belsky et al., 2016; Belsky et al., 2018; Krapohl & Plomin, 2016; Selzam et al., 2019).”
BackgroundCrowe, C. L., Domingue, B. W., Graf, G. H.-J., Keyes, K. M., Kwon, D., & Belsky, D. W. (2021) · The Journals of Gerontology Series A · doi:10.1093/gerona/glab128 · Cited by 140 · see citing works
Self-citationRosoff, D. B., Clarke, T., Adams, M. J., McIntosh, A. M., Smith, G. D., Jung, J., & Lohoff, F. W. (2019) · Molecular Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41380-019-0535-9 · Cited by 126 · see citing works
“Natural experiments52, 63, and twin studies have found that differences in EA, even after controlling for shared environmental factors, still significantly impact mortality risk64–66 and recent large Mendelian randomization studies have demonstrated inverse relationships between EA on smoking behaviors35 and coronary…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialGenes, Gender Inequality, and Educational Attainment
Herd, P., Jeremy Freese, A., Sicinski, K., Domingue, B. W., Harris, K. M., Wei, C., & Hauser, R. M. (2019) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.1177/0003122419886550 · Cited by 115 · see citing works
“…to the polygenic scores for obesity (Cesarini and Visscher 2017), and to the predictive strength of one parent’s educational attainment in predicting a child’s educational attainment (Lee et al. 2018), although there is debate over its multigenerational influences (Belsky et al. 2018; Liu 2018).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citation“Reports of My Death Were Greatly Exaggerated”: Behavior Genetics in the Postgenomic Era
Harden, K. P. (2020) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-052220-103822 · Cited by 120 · see citing works
Cognitive ability, cognitive self-awareness, and school performance: From childhood to adolescence
Δημητρίου, Α., Kazi, S., Makris, Ν., & Spanoudis, G. C. (2020) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2020.101432 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
Wang, B., Baldwin, J. R., Schoeler, T., Cheesman, R., Barkhuizen, W., Dudbridge, F., Bann, D., Morris, T. T., & Pingault, J.-B. (2021) · The American Journal of Human Genetics · doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2021.07.010 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
“Studies investigating genetic nurture effects on educational outcomes Cohorta Publication Outcomeb Effective Nc Design GWASd NOS scoree Born in Bradford birth cohort (BiB), UK Armstrong-Carter et al.13 key stage 1 school-based exam score 1,267 statistical control EA3 6.5 The Brisbane Adolescent Twin Study (BATS), Aust…”
BackgroundInfluentialHeritability of education rises with intergenerational mobility
Engzell, P., & Tropf, F. C. (2019) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1912998116 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
“Such research tells us that individual genetic variation contributes to social mobility and not just inheritance (23).”
BackgroundBelsky, D. W., & Harden, K. P. (2019) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0963721418807729 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
Self-citationWertz, J., Moffitt, T. E., Agnew‐Blais, J. C., Arseneault, L., Belsky, D. W., Corcoran, D. L., Houts, R., Matthews, T., Prinz, J. A., Richmond‐Rakerd, L. S., et al. (2019) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.13329 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
Self-citationGenetic associations with mathematics tracking and persistence in secondary school
Harden, K. P., Domingue, B. W., Belsky, D. W., Boardman, J. D., Crosnoe, R., Malanchini, M., Nivard, M., Tucker-Drob, E. M., & Harris, K. M. (2020) · npj Science of Learning · doi:10.1038/s41539-020-0060-2 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
“However, Add Health participants with a higher education-PGS more often grew up in high-SES families and attended high-SES schools, as compared to participants with lower polygenic scores.(26,27) These gene-environment correlations raise the possibility that genetic associations with mathematics tracking could be due…”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citationEvans, D. M., Moen, G.-H., Hwang, L., Lawlor, D. A., & Warrington, N. M. (2019) · International Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/ije/dyz019 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
Interactions between Polygenic Scores and Environments: Methodological and Conceptual Challenges
Domingue, B. W., Trejo, S., Armstrong‐Carter, E., & Tucker–Drob, E. M. (2020) · Sociological Science · doi:10.15195/v7.a19 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
“As an illustration, we consider two key adolescent environments—the socioeconomic circumstances of home (Belsky et al. 2018) and the disadvantage of one’s residential neighborhood (Belsky et al. 2019), both from Wave I of Add Health (Harris et al. 2019)—that may be of interest.”
MethodSelf-citationWalhovd, K. B., Fjell, A. M., Wang, Y., Amlien, I. K., Mowinckel, A. M., Lindenberger, U., Düzel, S., David Bartrés-faz, A., Ebmeier, K. P., Drevon, C. A., et al. (2021) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhab248 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Lee, J. J., McGue, M., Iacono, W. G., & Chow, C. C. (2018) · Genetic Epidemiology · doi:10.1002/gepi.22161 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Wertz, J., Belsky, J., Moffitt, T. E., Belsky, D. W., Harrington, H., Avinun, R., Poulton, R., Ramrakha, S., & Caspi, A. (2019) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/dev0000709 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
“Previous polygenic-score studies have pointed to this possibility—in particular, studies have shown that parents’ education-associated alleles predict children’s educational attainment even if they are not passed on to children (Bates et al., 2018; Belsky et al., 2018; Kong et al., 2018).”
Self-citationIntergenerational Transmission of Education and ADHD: Effects of Parental Genotypes
de Zeeuw, E. L., Hottenga, J., Ouwens, K. G., Dolan, C. V., Ehli, E. A., Davies, G. E., Boomsma, D. I., & van Bergen, E. (2020) · Behavior Genetics · doi:10.1007/s10519-020-09992-w · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Adolescent gender norms and adult health outcomes in the USA: a prospective cohort study
Shakya, H. B., Domingue, B. W., Nagata, J. M., Cislaghi, B., Weber, A. M., & Darmstadt, G. L. (2019) · The Lancet Child & Adolescent Health · doi:10.1016/s2352-4642(19)30160-9 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Self-citationTrejo, S., & Domingue, B. W. (2018) · Biodemography and Social Biology · doi:10.1080/19485565.2019.1681257 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
“While this value could in fact be negative, existing evidence suggests that ρg is typically positive (Armstrong-Carter et al. 2019; Bates et al. 2018; Belsky et al. 2018; Kong et al. 2018; Wertz et al. 2018).”
InfluentialSelf-citationWrestling with Social and Behavioral Genomics: Risks, Potential Benefits, and Ethical Responsibility
Meyer, M. N., Appelbaum, P. S., Benjamin, D. J., Callier, S., Comfort, N., Conley, D., Jeremy Freese, A., Garrison, N. A., Hammonds, E. M., Harden, K. P., et al. (2023) · The Hastings Center Report · doi:10.1002/hast.1477 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Self-citationNot a family matter: The effects of religiosity on academic outcomes based on evidence from siblings
Horwitz, I. M., Domingue, B. W., & Harris, K. M. (2020) · Social Science Research · doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2020.102426 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Self-citationTrejo, S., Belsky, D. W., Boardman, J., Jeremy Freese, A., Harris, K. M., Herd, P., Sicinski, K., & Domingue, B. W. (2018) · Sociological Science · doi:10.15195/v5.a22 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Self-citationResidential neighborhood greenery and children's cognitive development
Reuben, A., Arseneault, L., Belsky, D. W., Caspi, A., Fisher, H. L., Houts, R., Moffitt, T. E., & Odgers, C. L. (2019) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2019.04.029 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Self-citationNivard, M. G., Belsky, D. W., Harden, K. P., Baier, T., Andreassen, O. A., Ystrøm, E., van Bergen, E., & Lyngstad, T. H. (2024) · Nature Human Behaviour · doi:10.1038/s41562-023-01796-2 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
“Studies of gene–environment correlations reveal that children’s EA PGIs are correlated with environments they inherit from their parents, including the social and economic circumstances of their families and neighborhoods 14,16,17 .”
Self-citationMartschenko, D. O., Trejo, S., & Domingue, B. W. (2019) · AERA Open · doi:10.1177/2332858418810516 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Self-citationCan education be personalised using pupils’ genetic data?
Morris, T., Davies, N. M., & Smith, G. D. (2020) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.49962 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
“, 2018) social mobility over time and space (Belsky et al., 2018), and, in a different context, for performing Mendelian randomization studies of the effects of education on various outcomes (Tillmann et al.”
BackgroundBarnes, J. C., Liu, H., Motz, R. T., Tanksley, P. T., Kail, R., Beckley, A. L., Belsky, D. W., Domingue, B. W., Moffitt, T. E., Pratt, T. C., et al. (2019) · Aggression and Violent Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.avb.2019.07.002 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
“predictors of many human outcomes (e.g., Belsky et al., 2016; Belsky et al., 2018; Conley, Laidley, Belsky, et al., 2016; Conley & Domingue, 2016; Conley, Laidley, Boardman, & Domingue, 2016; Liu, 2018; Liu & Guo, 2015; Wedow et al., 2018).”
Self-citationNagata, J. M., Domingue, B. W., Darmstadt, G. L., Weber, A. M., Meausoone, V., Cislaghi, B., & Shakya, H. B. (2019) · Journal of Adolescent Health · doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2019.08.020 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Self-citationIs the impact of SES on educational performance overestimated? Evidence from the PISA survey
O’Connell, M. (2019) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2019.04.005 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Polygenic predictors of age-related decline in cognitive ability
Ritchie, S. J., Hill, W. D., Marioni, R. E., Davies, G., Hagenaars, S. P., Harris, S. E., Cox, S. R., Taylor, A. M., Corley, J., Pattie, A., et al. (2019) · Molecular Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41380-019-0372-x · Cited by 56 · see citing works
“The PGS for educational attainment, for example, has been shown not just to predict educational attainment but also, among other variables, cognitive ability [29], the rate of cognitive development in childhood [30], social mobility [30, 31], and longevity [32].”
BackgroundResearch Trends in Career Success: A Bibliometric Review
Pico-Saltos, R., Carrión-Mero, P., Montalván-Burbano, N., Garzás, J., & Redchuk, A. (2021) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su13094625 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Wu, Y., Zhong, X., Lin, Y., Zhao, Z., Chen, J. C., Zheng, B., Li, J. J., Fletcher, J. M., & Lu, Q. (2021) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2023184118 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Self-citationErola, J., Lehti, H., Baier, T., & Karhula, A. (2021) · European Sociological Review · doi:10.1093/esr/jcab026 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Domingue, B. W., Kanopka, K., Trejo, S., Rhemtulla, M., & Tucker–Drob, E. M. (2022) · Psychological Methods · doi:10.31235/osf.io/u7sh4 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Self-citationInterpreting Behavior Genetic Models: Seven Developmental Processes to Understand
Briley, D., Livengood, J., Derringer, J., Tucker-Drob, E., Fraley, R. C., & Roberts, B. (2018) · Behavior Genetics · doi:10.1007/s10519-018-9939-6 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Multivariable G-E interplay in the prediction of educational achievement
Allegrini, A. G., Karhunen, V., Coleman, J. R. I., Selzam, S., Rimfeld, K., von Stumm, S., Pingault, J., & Plomin, R. J. (2020) · PLoS Genetics · doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1009153 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
“A growing body of evidence points to the rGE conclusion that genetic effects on cognitive trait variation are partly environmentally mediated [25], which is likely to be due to passive rGE.”
BackgroundRosoff, D. B., Kaminsky, Z. A., McIntosh, A. M., Smith, G. D., & Lohoff, F. W. (2020) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41398-020-01047-2 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Lin, M.-J. (2019) · Social Science Research · doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2019.102387 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Smith-Woolley, E., Selzam, S., & Plomin, R. (2019) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/pspp0000241 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
“…previous research using EduYears GPS has focused on its relation with ‘cognitive’ traits, such as general cognitive ability and educational outcomes (Belsky et al., 2018; Lee et al., 2018; Okbay, Beauchamp, et al., 2016; Rietveld et al., 2013; Selzam, Dale, et al., 2017; Selzam, Krapohl, et al.,…”
MethodA Polygenic Score for Higher Educational Attainment is Associated with Larger Brains
Elliott, M. L., Belsky, D. W., Anderson, K., Corcoran, D. L., Ge, T., Knodt, A., Prinz, J. A., Sugden, K., Williams, B., Ireland, D., et al. (2019) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhy219 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Self-citationBURT, C. H. (2022) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x22001145 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Inadequacies in the SES–Achievement model: Evidence from PISA and other studies
Marks, G. N., & O'Connell, M. (2021) · Review of Education · doi:10.1002/rev3.3293 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
“Genetic nurture refers to the effects of parents’ non- transmitted genes on their offspring's outcomes mediated by the environment that parents create for their children (Bates et al., 2018; Belsky et al., 2018; Kong et al., 2018).”
BackgroundGreenfield, E. A., Moorman, S. M., & Rieger, A. (2020) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/gbaa062 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Gugushvili, A., Bulczak, G. M., Zelinska, O., & Koltai, J. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0254414 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Ming, H., Zhang, F., Jiang, Y. H., Ren, Y., & Huang, S. (2021) · British Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjop.12490 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Armstrong‐Carter, E., Trejo, S., Hill, L. J. B., Crossley, K. L., Mason, D., & Domingue, B. W. (2020) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797620917209 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
“, 2016), which correlate with numerous related behavioral and social phenotypes: more prestigious occupations and upward social mobility (Belsky et al., 2018; Trejo et al., 2018); intelligence, self-control, and interpersonal skills (Belsky et al.”
BackgroundSelf-citationPolygenic Scores in Developmental Psychology: Invite Genetics In, Leave Biodeterminism Behind
Raffington, L., Mallard, T. T., & Harden, K. P. (2020) · Annual Review of Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-devpsych-051820-123945 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Houweling, T. A. J., & Grünberger, I. (2024) · Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health · doi:10.1136/jech-2022-220162 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
“105 111–114 118 Furthermore, genetic risk factors for health outcomes that affect SEP might contribute to the intergenerational transmission of health inequalities.”
Dwaraka, V. B., Aronica, L., Carreras-Gallo, N., Robinson, J. L., Hennings, T., Carter, M. M., Corley, M. J., Lin, A., Turner, L., Smith, R. C., et al. (2024) · BMC Medicine · doi:10.1186/s12916-024-03513-w · Cited by 44 · see citing works
“Never-theless, these measures are acknowledged to be incomplete summaries of biological changes that occur with aging and to have technical limitations [57, 58].”
BackgroundΔημητρίου, Α., Kazi, S., Spanoudis, G. C., & Makris, Ν. (2019) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2019.101381 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Building causal knowledge in behavior genetics
Madole, J. W., & Harden, K. P. (2022) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x22000681 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Józsa, K., Amukune, S., Zentai, G., & Barrett, K. C. (2022) · Journal of Intelligence · doi:10.3390/jintelligence10030066 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
“Some scholars have gone a step further and investigated the role of genetic differences linked to SES, such as the cognitive abilities of the parents, in relation to their children’s school success (e.g., Belsky et al. 2018).”
BackgroundThe genetics of university success
Smith‐Woolley, E., Ayorech, Z., Dale, P. S., von Stumm, S., & Plomin, R. J. (2018) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-018-32621-w · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Thomas, M. S. C., & Dündar‐Coecke, S. (2023) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1111/cogs.13217 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
“Similarly, Belsky et al. (2018) observed that children who achieved greater educational success than their parents, a marker of upward social mobility, had higher polygenic scores for education, indicating that genetic variation influences characteristics that foster success, yet they still…”
BackgroundWilloughby, E. A., Polderman, T. J. C., & Boutwell, B. B. (2023) · Nature Reviews Methods Primers · doi:10.1038/s43586-022-00191-x · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Willoughby, E. A., McGue, M. K., Iacono, W. G., Rustichini, A., & Lee, J. J. (2019) · Molecular Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41380-019-0494-1 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Mitchell, B. L., Cuéllar-Partida, G., Grasby, K. L., Campos, A. I., Strike, L. T., Hwang, L., Okbay, A., Thompson, P. M., Medland, S. E., Martin, N. G., et al. (2020) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2020.116691 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Dardani, C., Howe, L. J., Mukhopadhyay, N., Stergiakouli, E., Wren, Y. E., Humphries, K., Davies, A., Ho, K. M., Weinberg, S. M., Marazita, M. L., et al. (2020) · International Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/ije/dyaa047 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
“educational attainment or intelligence may influence the early prenatal environment to increase the risk of nsCL/P.(43) Any parental effect can be inferred as being due to shared (50% from each parent) parent–offspring genetics.”
BackgroundThe Dunedin study after half a century: reflections on the past, and course for the future
Poulton, R., Guiney, H., Ramrakha, S., & Moffitt, T. E. (2022) · Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand · doi:10.1080/03036758.2022.2114508 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“In recent years, the Dunedin Study has made a concerted e ff ort to work with others in pursuit of this model (Copeland et al. 2013; Belsky et al. 2018; Becker et al. 2021; Demange et al. 2021; Rocha et al. 2021).”
BackgroundSelf-citationThe Contribution of Cognitive and Noncognitive Skills to Intergenerational Social Mobility
McGue, M. K., Willoughby, E. A., Rustichini, A., Johnson, W., Iacono, W. G., & Lee, J. J. (2020) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797620924677 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Family disadvantage, gender, and the returns to genetic human capital*
Ronda, V., Agerbo, E., Bleses, D., Mortensen, P. B., Børglum, A., Mors, O., Rosholm, M., Hougaard, D. M., Nordentoft, M., & Werge, T. (2021) · Scandinavian Journal of Economics · doi:10.1111/sjoe.12462 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
A quantile integral linear model to quantify genetic effects on phenotypic variability
Miao, J., Lin, Y., Wu, Y., Zheng, B., Schmitz, L., Fletcher, J. M., & Lu, Q. (2022) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2212959119 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Self-citationGenetic predictors of educational attainment and intelligence test performance predict voter turnout
Aarøe, L., Appadurai, V., Hansen, K. M., Schork, A. J., Werge, T. M., Mors, O. N., Børglum, A. D., HOUGAARD, D. M., Nordentoft, M., Mortensen, P. B., et al. (2020) · Nature Human Behaviour · doi:10.1038/s41562-020-00952-2 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Helbling, L. A., Tomasik, M. J., & Moser, U. (2019) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/edu0000341 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
“Heritability of cognitive ability has been found to increase with age, while complex gene–environment interactions can alter heritability depending upon environmental exposure, opportunities, and constraints (Haworth & Davis, 2014; Shanahan & Hofer, 2005; Belsky et al., 2018).”
BackgroundThe moderating role of SES on genetic differences in educational achievement in the Netherlands
de Zeeuw, E. L., Kan, K., van Beijsterveldt, C. E. M., Mbarek, H., Hottenga, J., Davies, G. E., Neale, M. C., Dolan, C. V., & Boomsma, D. I. (2019) · npj Science of Learning · doi:10.1038/s41539-019-0052-2 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
The relationship between cognitive decline and a genetic predictor of educational attainment
Ding, X., Barban, N., Tropf, F. C., & Mills, M. C. (2019) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2019.112549 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Sibling validation of polygenic risk scores and complex trait prediction
Lello, L., Raben, T. G., & Hsu, S. (2020) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-020-69927-7 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Weinberg, D., Stevens, G. W. J. M., Finkenauer, C., Brunekreef, B., Smit, H. A., & Wijga, A. H. (2019) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0216803 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Raffington, L., Czamara, D., Mohn, J. J., Falck, J., Schmoll, V., Heim, C. C., Binder, E. B., & Shing, Y. L. (2019) · Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2019.100720 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Decomposing the influence of mental processes on academic performance
Δημητρίου, Α., Makris, Ν., Tachmatzidis, D., Kazi, S., & Spanoudis, G. C. (2019) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2019.101404 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Interpreting polygenic score effects in sibling analysis
Fletcher, J. M., Wu, Y., Li, T., & Lu, Q. (2024) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0282212 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
“2021) and in downstream PGS analysis (Belsky et al. 2018).”
BackgroundSelf-citationGenetic associations between non-cognitive skills and academic achievement over development
Malanchini, M., Allegrini, A. G., Nivard, M. G., Biroli, P., Rimfeld, K., Cheesman, R., von Stumm, S., Demange, P., van Bergen, E., Grotzinger, A. D., et al. (2024) · Nature Human Behaviour · doi:10.1038/s41562-024-01967-9 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
The long-term effects of early-life pollution exposure: Evidence from the London smog
von Hinke, S., & Sørensen, E. N. (2023) · Journal of Health Economics · doi:10.1016/j.jhealeco.2023.102827 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Indirect assortative mating for human disease and longevity
Rawlik, K., Canela‐Xandri, O., & Tenesa, A. (2019) · Heredity · doi:10.1038/s41437-019-0185-3 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Embryo Screening for Polygenic Disease Risk: Recent Advances and Ethical Considerations
Tellier, L. C. A. M., Eccles, J., Treff, N. R., Lello, L., Fishel, S. B., & Hsu, S. (2021) · Genes · doi:10.3390/genes12081105 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
“There are now many validations of polygenic prediction in the scientific literature, which were conducted using groups of people born on different continents and in different decades with respect to the original populations used in training [10,13,14].”
BackgroundDomingue, B. W., & Fletcher, J. M. (2020) · Behavior Genetics · doi:10.1007/s10519-020-10000-4 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Self-citationWidén, E., Raben, T. G., Lello, L., & Hsu, S. (2021) · Genes · doi:10.3390/genes12070991 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Child-Driven Parenting: Differential Early Childhood Investment by Offspring Genotype
Breinholt, A., & Conley, D. (2023) · Social Forces · doi:10.1093/sf/soac155 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Self-citationCattan, S., Fitzsimons, E., Goodman, A. T., Phimister, A., Ploubidis, G. B., & Wertz, J. (2024) · Oxford Open Economics · doi:10.1093/ooec/odad072 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Self-citationThe production of within-family inequality: Insights and implications of integrating genetic data
Fletcher, J. M., Wu, Y., Zhao, Z., & Lu, Q. (2023) · PNAS Nexus · doi:10.1093/pnasnexus/pgad121 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“Our baseline results conformed with other analyses (23-25) showing that the education attainment (EA)-PGS predicts educational attainment in the UKB sample (Table 1, Column 1), that these associations are retained in the sibling sub-sample (Table 1, Column 2) and that the association is reduced by >50% when family fix…”
BackgroundResultSelf-citationGenetic Nature or Genetic Nurture? Quantifying Bias in Analyses Using Polygenic ScoresPreprint
Trejo, S., & Domingue, B. W. (2019) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/524850 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“Social science is now beginning to study such effects in human populations; examples include among social peers (Sotoudeh, Conley, and Harris 2017; Domingue et al. 2018), sibling pairs (Cawley et al. 2017; Kong et al. 2018), and parents and their children (Bates et al. 2018; Kong et al. 2018; Wertz et al. 2018).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationGenetic risk, body mass index, and weight control behaviors: Unlocking the triad
Nagata, J. M., Braudt, D. B., Domingue, B. W., Bibbins-Domingo, K. B., Garber, A. K., Griffiths, S., & Murray, S. B. (2019) · International Journal of Eating Disorders · doi:10.1002/eat.23083 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
“, 2018), as well as recent work using Add Health genetic data (Belsky et al., 2018).”
MethodSelf-citationAchieved educational attainment, inherited genetic endowment for education, and obesity
Li, Y., Cai, T., Wang, H., & Guo, G. (2021) · Biodemography and Social Biology · doi:10.1080/19485565.2020.1869919 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
“The education PGS may reflect the genetics that influence the development of traits and behaviors (e.g., cognitive abilities) that lead to different achievement in school (Belsky et al. 2018; Plomin and von Stumm 2018).”
BackgroundMatthews, L. J., Lebowitz, M. S., Ottman, R., & Appelbaum, P. S. (2021) · Social Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s11218-021-09632-z · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Dynamic Complementarity in Skill Production: Evidence From Genetic Endowments and Birth OrderPreprint
Muslimova, D., van Kippersluis, H., Rietveld, C. A., von Hinke, S., & Meddens, S. F. W. (2020) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3748468 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“…implies that the ‘gene-effect’ may in fact reflect ‘genetic nurture’ – that is, the parental genotype can shape the environment in which children grow up, thereby producing a spurious association between the child’s genetic variants and their outcomes (Belsky et al., 2018; Kong et al., 2018).”
Tanksley, P. T., Barnes, J. C., Boutwell, B. B., Arseneault, L., Caspi, A., Danese, A., Fisher, H. L., & Moffitt, T. E. (2020) · Journal of Experimental Criminology · doi:10.1007/s11292-020-09422-1 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Self-citationParenting in the Context of the Child: Genetic and Social Processes
Reiss, D., Ganiban, J. M., Leve, L. D., Neiderhiser, J. M., Shaw, D. S., & Natsuaki, M. N. (2022) · Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development · doi:10.1111/mono.12460 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Dowsett, J., Ferkingstad, E., Rasmussen, L. J. H., Thørner, L. W., Magnússon, M. K., Sugden, K., Þorleifsson, G., Frigge, M. L., Burgdorf, K. S., Ostrowski, S. R., et al. (2021) · Communications Biology · doi:10.1038/s42003-021-02144-8 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Self-citationCausal Inference Methods to Integrate Omics and Complex TraitsPreprint
Porcu, E., Sjaarda, J., Lepik, K., Carmeli, C., Darrous, L., Sulc, J., Mounier, N., & Kutalik, Z. (2020) · Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Medicine · doi:10.1101/cshperspect.a040493 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“Family-based designs can be a solution to eliminate most of the confounding effects, which are often shared among siblings (Belsky et al. 2018; Davies et al. 2019).”
BackgroundA polygenic score for educational attainment partially predicts voter turnout
Dawes, C. T., Okbay, A., Oskarsson, S., & Rustichini, A. (2021) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2022715118 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“They include socioeconomic status (35, 41, 45–47), wealth (48), labor market outcomes (47, 49, 50), geographic mobility and migration (35, 51, 52), and mate choice (53, 54).”
Background
- Authors
- Belsky, D. W., Domingue, B. W., Wedow, R., Arseneault, L., Boardman, J. D., Caspi, A., Conley, D., Fletcher, J. M., Freese, J., Herd, P., Moffitt, T. E., Poulton, R., Sicinski, K., Wertz, J., & Harris, K. M.
- Affiliations
- Duke University (US)
- Stanford University (US)
- University of Colorado Boulder (US)
- King's College London (GB)
- Princeton University (US)
- University of Wisconsin–Madison (US)
- Department of Sociology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305;
- University of Otago (NZ)
- University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (US)
- Corresponding author
- Belsky, Daniel W.
- Harris, Kathleen Mullan
- ORCID
- Venue
- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
- Publisher
- National Academy of Sciences
- Published
- 2018-07-09
- Volume
- 115
- Issue
- 31
- Pages
- E7275-E7284
- ISSN
- 0027-8424 (ISSN-L)
- 1091-6490
- PMC
- PMC6077729
- OpenAlex
- W2848694795
- Cited by
- 315
- References
- 72
- Citations by year
- 2026: 21 · 2025: 26 · 2024: 36 · 2023: 35 · 2022: 42 · 2021: 47 · 2020: 34 · 2019: 65 · 2018: 8
- FWCI
- 87.42
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Update notices
- correction (2018-11-05)
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- Research Portal (King's College London) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Funders
- Office of Extramural Research, National Institutes of Health (R01HD077482, P01HD31921, R01HD073342, R01HD060726, R01AG032282)
- UK Medical Research Council (G1002190, MR/P005918/1)
- Jacobs Foundation (Jacobs Prize, Early Career Fellowship)
- Russel Sage Foundation (961704)
- National Science Foundation (DGE1144083)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Intergenerational and Educational Inequality Studies
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Genetic Associations and Epidemiology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Keywords
- social mobility, educational attainment, polygenic risk score, upward mobility, socioeconomic attainment, wealth accumulation, parental socioeconomic status, family environment
- MeSH terms
- Educational Status, Genetic Testing, Humans, Longitudinal Studies, Occupations, Social Class, Social Mobility, Siblings, Genome-Wide Association Study
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