The DOI matches its Crossref record; 97 of the 97 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 14 of the 59 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Learning loss due to school closures during the COVID-19 pandemic
Open accessAbstract
Significance: School closures have been a common tool in the battle against COVID-19. Yet, their costs and benefits remain insufficiently known. We use a natural experiment that occurred as national examinations in The Netherlands took place before and after lockdown to evaluate the impact of school closures on students’ learning. The Netherlands is interesting as a “best-case” scenario, with a short lockdown, equitable school funding, and world-leading rates of broadband access. Despite favorable conditions, we find that students made little or no progress while learning from home. Learning loss was most pronounced among students from disadvantaged homes.
Overview
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
Using Dutch national assessments taken before and after an 8-week COVID-19 school closure, this study finds that primary students made little or no progress while learning from home. The Netherlands is a “best-case” setting, yet average learning loss was 3.16 percentile points (0.08 SD), with larger losses among students from disadvantaged homes.
Key findings
- In the baseline difference-in-differences estimate for a composite of math, spelling, and reading, students lost on average 3.16 percentile points, equivalent to 0.08 SD; raw differences ranged from −0.76 percentiles in spelling to −2.15 percentiles in math.
- Losses were concentrated among students from less-educated homes: the two lowest parental-education categories, together 8% of the population, suffered losses 40% larger than average (high, −3.07; low, −4.34; lowest, −4.25); within-family estimates showed a gap of 60% (high, −3.25; low, −4.67; lowest, −5.20).
- There was little evidence that effects differed by sex, school grade, subject, or prior performance, but school-level variation was considerable, with some schools seeing losses of 10 percentile points or more and others no losses or small gains.
- On a learning-readiness test not tied to curricular content, effects shrank by nearly two-thirds (main effect −1.19 vs. −3.16), suggesting most of the drop reflects knowledge learned; 3.16 percentiles translates to 7.9 to 10.5 weeks of lost learning depending on the benchmark.
Methods
- Natural experiment/difference-in-differences design using biannual national standardized tests in The Netherlands from 2017 to 2020, covering 15% of Dutch primary schools (n ≈ 350,000) and students aged 8 to 11 years (grades 4 to 7); 2020 tests occurred just before and after 8 weeks of nationwide closures starting March 16.
- Main outcomes were math, spelling, reading, and a composite score, plus an oral reading fluency/learning-readiness test; scores were transformed to percentiles, with baseline models adjusting for a linear year trend and days between tests and clustering standard errors at the school level.
- Robustness included placebo analyses, year exclusions, loss-to-follow-up adjustments via regression, propensity-score and maximum-entropy weighting, school and family fixed effects, and a specification curve analysis of more than 2,000 alternative models.
Limitations
- The paper states that only time will tell whether students rebound, remain stable, or fall farther behind; test scores do not capture psychosocial development or societal and parental costs; and results may underestimate the full costs of school closures.
- The paper notes that The Netherlands is a best-case scenario due to short closures, high technological preparedness, and equitable school funding, making the estimates a likely lower bound; the short closure also gave little time to adapt, and remote learning might improve with time.
- The text makes evident that the sample covers 15% of primary schools, loss to follow-up is addressed but only a subset of students took tests after lockdown, and the within-family fixed-effects specification reduces the sample by approximately 60% and shifts it toward larger families.
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Claims the paper makes
23 Own result · 16 Own method · 12 Own interpretation · 10 No full text of the sources · 9 Sources not found · 4 Partly supported · 4 Not checked yet · 3 No basis given · 2 Supported so far · accuracy not yet measured
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“In their projections of learning loss due to the pandemic, the World Bank assumes a yearly progress of 0.40 SD (46).”
§ Learning loss due to school closures during the COVID-19 pandemic > Discussion
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [46] J. P. Azevedo, A. Hasan, D. Goldemberg, S. A. Iqbal, K. Geven (2020) Simulating the potential impacts of COVID-19 school closures on schooling and learning outcomes: A set of global estimates. World Bank Policy Research Working Paper (9284). https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/33945. Accessed 9 February 2021. sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Empirical methodology (p. 15) says the projections assume learning gains of 0.2–0.5 SD from one grade to the next, depending on country income. Annex A.1 (p. 44) specifies 40 PISA points, equivalent to 0.40 SD, as the baseline for upper-middle-income countries—not as a universal yearly rate. (LLM, conf=0.90)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Our results show that learning loss was particularly pronounced for students from disadvantaged homes, confirming the fears held by many that school closures would cause socioeconomic gaps to widen (51 –55).”
§ Learning loss due to school closures during the COVID-19 pandemic > Discussion
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [51] E. A. Hanushek, L. Woessmann, The Economic Impacts of Learning Losses (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development OECD, 2020). source
The Summary of closure experiences says that school closures have widened gaps in skill development and warns that they may increase inequality. Section 4, “Distributional issues,” says the negative impact was greater for students from disadvantaged households. The citing authors’ claim about what their own results show is not attributed to this source. (LLM, conf=0.92)
- Supportedcites [52] F. Agostinelli, M. Doepke, G. Sorrenti, F. Zilibotti, When the Great Equalizer Shuts Down: Schools, Peers, and Parents in Pandemic Times (National Bureau of Economic Research, 2020). PMC8735857 35017763 source
The Conclusions state that the paper’s analysis finds higher educational inequality and that learning gaps grow during the pandemic. This supports the cited concern that school closures would widen socioeconomic gaps; the citing authors’ own learning-loss results are not attributed to this source. (LLM, conf=0.93)
- Partly supportedcites [53] A. Bacher-Hicks, J. Goodman, C. Mulhern, Inequality in household adaptation to schooling shocks: Covid-induced online learning engagement in real time. J. Publ. Econ. 193, 104345 (2020). PMC8486492 34629567 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Introduction reports that school closures widened socioeconomic gaps in searches for online learning resources. The Discussion says this pattern suggests academic gaps will be wider in future school years, but the paper does not establish that closures had already widened learning-loss gaps; its measured outcome is primarily search engagement. (LLM, conf=0.86)
- Supportedcites [54] Z. Parolin, E. K. Lee, Large socio-economic, geographic and demographic disparities exist in exposure to school closures. Nat. Hum. Beh., 10.1038/s41562-021-01087-8. (2021). PMC8060162 33737734 source
The Discussion says that disadvantaged students’ greater exposure to school closures and distance learning may exacerbate socio-economic gaps in learning outcomes. This supports the cited concern that closures could widen those gaps; the citing authors attribute the observed learning loss to their own results, not to this source. (LLM, conf=0.90)
- Supportedcites [55] D. H. Bailey, G. J. Duncan, R. J. Murnane, N. A. Yeung (2021) Achievement gaps in the wake of COVID-19 (EdWorkingPaper No. 21-346, Annenberg Institute at Brown University). https://www.edworkingpapers.com/ai21-346. Accessed 9 February 2021. source
The Discussion reports researchers’ prediction that COVID-19 would markedly increase achievement gaps between children from low- and higher-income families. The Abstract identifies these as forecasts, supporting the cited ‘fears’; the claim that results confirm them refers to the citing authors’ own results, not to this source. (LLM, conf=0.90)
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Nevertheless, the magnitude of our findings appears to validate scenarios projected by bodies such as the European Commission (34) and the World Bank (46).”
§ Learning loss due to school closures during the COVID-19 pandemic > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [34] G. Di Pietro, F. Biagi, P. Costa, Z. Karpinski, J. Mazza, The Likely Impact of COVID-19 on Education: Reflections Based on the Existing Literature and Recent International Datasets (Publications Office of the European Union, 2020).
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Supportedcites [46] J. P. Azevedo, A. Hasan, D. Goldemberg, S. A. Iqbal, K. Geven (2020) Simulating the potential impacts of COVID-19 school closures on schooling and learning outcomes: A set of global estimates. World Bank Policy Research Working Paper (9284). https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/33945. Accessed 9 February 2021. source
The citation to this paper is attached to the World Bank scenarios, not to the European Commission or the citing authors’ judgment that their findings validate them. The Conclusion (p. 35) presents optimistic, intermediate, and pessimistic global scenarios for the effects of COVID-19 school closures on schooling and learning. (LLM, conf=0.91)
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Not matched
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“Moreover, we match treatment and control groups on a wider range of individual- and school-level characteristics using reweighting on the propensity of treatment (68) and maximum-entropy balancing (69).”
§ Learning loss due to school closures during the COVID-19 pandemic > Materials and Methods > Propensity Score and Entropy Weighting.
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [68] G. W. Imbens, J. M. Wooldridge, Recent developments in the econometrics of program evaluation. J. Econ. Lit. 47, 5– 86 (2009). source
Section 5.4 explains that adjusting for the propensity score accounts for differences in covariates between treated and control units. Section 5.6 describes weighting observations by their propensity of treatment or non-treatment. Citation (68) supports the propensity-reweighting method; the sentence cites a different source for maximum-entropy balancing. (LLM, conf=0.88)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [69] J. Hainmueller, Entropy balancing for causal effects: A multivariate reweighting method to produce balanced samples in observational studies. Polit. Anal., 20, 25– 46 (2012). source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Supported
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The largest gap in effect sizes between educational backgrounds is found in our within-family analysis, estimated at 60% (parental education: high, −3.25; low, −4.67; lowest, −5.20).”
§ Learning loss due to school closures during the COVID-19 pandemic > Results > Adjusting for Loss to Follow-up.
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Those in the two lowest categories of parental education—together accounting for 8% of the population ( SI Appendix, section 5.1)—suffered losses 40% larger than the average student (estimates by parental education: high, −3.07; low, −4.34; lowest, −4.25).”
§ Learning loss due to school closures during the COVID-19 pandemic > Results > Baseline Specification.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Disregarding the trend and instead assuming a counterfactual where achievement had stayed flat between 2019 and 2020, the estimated treatment effect shrinks by 21% to −2.51 percentiles ( SI Appendix, section 7.11).”
§ Learning loss due to school closures during the COVID-19 pandemic > Results > Specification Curve Analysis.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast, we find little evidence that the effect differs by sex, school grade, subject, or prior performance.”
§ Learning loss due to school closures during the COVID-19 pandemic > Results > Baseline Specification.
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The placebo estimate closest to zero is found in the version of our preferred specification that includes family fixed effects.”
§ Learning loss due to school closures during the COVID-19 pandemic > Results > Specification Curve Analysis.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Therefore, adjusting for these covariates makes little difference to our results ( SI Appendix, section 7.1).”
§ Learning loss due to school closures during the COVID-19 pandemic > Results > Adjusting for Loss to Follow-up.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Probably not a substantial claim. 19
- It may state two separate claims as one. 30
- The quote only partly states this claim. 1
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“Dynamic models of learning stress how small losses can accumulate into large disadvantages with time (56 –58).”
§ Learning loss due to school closures during the COVID-19 pandemic > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [56] T. A. DiPrete, G. M. Eirich, Cumulative advantage as a mechanism for inequality: A review of theoretical and empirical developments. Annu. Rev. Sociol. 32, 271– 297 (2006). source
- Supportedcites [57] M. Kaffenberger, Modelling the long-run learning impact of the Covid-19 learning shock: Actions to (more than) mitigate loss. Int. J. Educ. Dev. 81, 102326 (2021). 33716394 PMC7923185 source
The Introduction reports that the model projects a one-third reduction in grade 3 learning to become a full-year deficit by grade 10, and a one-half reduction to become a 1.5-year deficit. These projections support the claim that an initial learning loss can lead to a larger disadvantage over time. (LLM, conf=0.92)
- Supportedcites [58] N. Fuchs-Schündeln, D. Krueger, A. Ludwig, I. Popova, The Long-Term Distributional and Welfare Effects of COVID-19 School Closures (National Bureau of Economic Research, 2020). source
The Introduction (page unavailable) explains that an initial shortfall in children’s human capital reduces the productivity of later investments, leading to less investment and worse educational and earnings outcomes. Section 4.1.1 (page unavailable) likewise says that reduced accumulation at younger ages translates into lower human capital and investment in the future. (LLM, conf=0.90)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Test scores do not consider children’s psychosocial development (63, 64), either societal costs due to productivity decline or heightened pressure among parents (65, 66).”
§ Learning loss due to school closures during the COVID-19 pandemic > Discussion
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [63] A. Gassman-Pines, C. M. Gibson-Davis, E. O. Ananat, How economic downturns affect children’s development: An interdisciplinary perspective on pathways of influence. Child Dev. Perspect. 9, 233– 238 (2015). 31327980 PMC6641565 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The section on economic and psychological effects on continuously employed individuals reports increased financial and psychological stress within families and greater parental distress during downturns, supporting the point about pressure on parents. The paper also discusses children’s emotional well-being separately from test scores, but it does not say that test scores omit societal costs from declining productivity or explicitly assess what test scores capture. No page number was available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.82)
- Could not verifycites [64] L. Shanahan, Emotional distress in young adults during the COVID-19 pandemic: Evidence of risk and resilience from a longitudinal cohort study. Psychol. Med., 10.1017/S003329172000241X (2020). PMC7338432 32571438 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Methods (Measures; page unavailable) assess economic and lifestyle disruptions among young adults, and the Discussion (page unavailable) links those disruptions to emotional distress. Neither passage addresses what test scores omit, societal costs from declining productivity, or heightened pressure on parents. Searches for those specific points found no supporting passage in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.73)
- Partly supportedcites [65] C. Collins, L. C. Landivar, L. Ruppanner, W. J. Scarborough, COVID-19 and the gender gap in work hours. Gender Work. Organ. 28, 101– 12. (2020). PMC7361447 32837019 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Introduction describes acute time and financial pressures on working parents, and the Results (section 4.1; page unavailable) report that mothers reduced paid work hours amid childcare and homeschooling demands. These passages support heightened parental pressure and reduced work time, but the paper does not assess test scores or establish societal costs from a decline in productivity. (LLM, conf=0.84)
- Partly supportedcites [66] P. Biroli (2020) “ Family life in lockdown” (IZA Discussion Paper 13398, Institute of Labor Economics, Bonn, Germany). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Results section (Family Cooperation and Tensions; page unavailable) reports increased household tension associated with changes in childcare and other household tasks during lockdown, supporting the point about pressure on parents. The paper does not establish societal costs from declining productivity or state that test scores omit these effects. (LLM, conf=0.82)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Partly supported
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Doing so identifies the control for pretreatment trends as the most influential, followed by the control for test timing and the inclusion of school and family fixed effects.”
§ Learning loss due to school closures during the COVID-19 pandemic > Results > Specification Curve Analysis.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, the fixed-effects specification shifts the sample toward larger families, and effects in this subsample are similar using our baseline specification ( SI Appendix, section 7.7).”
§ Learning loss due to school closures during the COVID-19 pandemic > Results > Adjusting for Loss to Follow-up.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Excluding adjustment for testing date decreases the effect size by 12%, while including fixed effects increases it by 1.6% (school level) or 6.3% (family level).”
§ Learning loss due to school closures during the COVID-19 pandemic > Results > Specification Curve Analysis.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We validate these benchmarks in our data by exploiting variation in testing dates during comparison years and show that test scores improve by 0.30 to 0.40 percentiles per week, equivalent to 0.31 to 0.41 SD annually ( SI Appendix, section 4.3).”
§ Learning loss due to school closures during the COVID-19 pandemic > Discussion
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Students lost on average 3.16 percentile points in the national distribution, equivalent to 0.08 standard deviations (SD) ( SI Appendix, section 4.3).”
§ Learning loss due to school closures during the COVID-19 pandemic > Results > Baseline Specification.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In SI Appendix, Table S3, we show that the treatment sample is not skewed on sex, parental education, or prior performance.”
§ Learning loss due to school closures during the COVID-19 pandemic > Results > Adjusting for Loss to Follow-up.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This graph reveals a raw difference ranging from −0.76 percentiles in spelling to −2.15 percentiles in math.”
§ Learning loss due to school closures during the COVID-19 pandemic > Results
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The quote only partly states this claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These losses are evident throughout the age range we study and across all of the three subject areas: math, spelling, and reading.”
§ Learning loss due to school closures during the COVID-19 pandemic > Discussion
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We also reestimate our main specification dropping comparison years one at a time ( SI Appendix, section 7.3). These results are estimated with less precision but otherwise in line with those of our main analysis.”
§ Learning loss due to school closures during the COVID-19 pandemic > Results > Placebo Analysis and Year Exclusions.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Our estimated treatment effect translates into 3.16/35 = 0.09 percentiles or 0.002 SD per school day and is thus on the lower end of that range.*”
§ Learning loss due to school closures during the COVID-19 pandemic > Discussion
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“These groups make up, respectively, 92, 4, and 4% of the student body and our sample ( SI Appendix, section 5.1).”
§ Learning loss due to school closures during the COVID-19 pandemic > Materials and Methods > Parental Education.
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites SI Appendix, section 5.1
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“This literature reports reductions in achievement ranging from 0.001 to 0.010 SD per school day lost (10).”
§ Learning loss due to school closures during the COVID-19 pandemic > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [10] M. Kuhfeld, Projecting the potential impacts of COVID-19 school closures on academic achievement. Educ. Res. 49, 549– 565 (2020). source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Using the smaller benchmark, learning loss exceeds the period of school closures (3.16/0.30 = 10.5 wk), implying that students regressed during this time.”
§ Learning loss due to school closures during the COVID-19 pandemic > Discussion
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Using the larger benchmark, a treatment effect of 3.16 percentiles would translate into 3.16/0.40 = 7.9 wk of lost learning—nearly exactly the same period that schools in The Netherlands remained closed.”
§ Learning loss due to school closures during the COVID-19 pandemic > Discussion
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, failure to adjust for pretreatment trends generates placebo estimates that are biased in a positive direction and is thus likely to underestimate treatment effects.”
§ Learning loss due to school closures during the COVID-19 pandemic > Results > Specification Curve Analysis.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Hypotheses and analysis protocols for this study were preregistered ( SI Appendix, section 4.1).”
§ Learning loss due to school closures during the COVID-19 pandemic > Study Setting
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The Netherlands is interesting as a “best-case” scenario, with a short lockdown, equitable school funding, and world-leading rates of broadband access.”
- Also stated in: § Study Setting · hedged
“For these reasons, The Netherlands presents a “best-case” scenario, providing a likely lower bound on learning loss elsewhere in Europe and the world.”
§ Learning loss due to school closures during the COVID-19 pandemic > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [30] H. A. Patrinos, “ School choice in the Netherlands” (CESifo DICE Report 2/2011, ifo Institute for Economic Research, Munich, Germany, 2011).
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [31] H. F. Ladd, E. B. Fiske, Weighted student funding in The Netherlands: A model for the US? J. Pol. Anal. Manag. 30, 470– 498 (2011). source
- Not matchedcites [33] Statistics Netherlands (CBS), The Netherlands leads Europe in internet access. https://www.cbs.nl/en-gb/news/2018/05/the-Netherlands-leads-europe-in-internet-access. Accessed 9 February 2021.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [34] G. Di Pietro, F. Biagi, P. Costa, Z. Karpinski, J. Mazza, The Likely Impact of COVID-19 on Education: Reflections Based on the Existing Literature and Recent International Datasets (Publications Office of the European Union, 2020).
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [36] Johns Hopkins Coronavirus Resource Center, COVID-19 case tracker. https://coronavirus.jhu.edu/data. Accessed 9 February 2021.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [37] P. Tullis, Dutch cooperation made an ‘intelligent lockdown’ a success. Bloomberg Businessweek (4 June 2020).
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Study Setting · hedged
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“which would indicate that remote learning operated at 50% efficiency.”
§ Learning loss due to school closures during the COVID-19 pandemic > Discussion
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In our baseline specification, we adjust for a linear trend in year and the time elapsed between testing dates and cluster standard errors at the school level.”
§ Learning loss due to school closures during the COVID-19 pandemic > Results
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Moreover, we restrict analysis to schools where at least 75% of students took their tests after lockdown ( SI Appendix, section 7.5).”
§ Learning loss due to school closures during the COVID-19 pandemic > Results > Adjusting for Loss to Follow-up.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“Although early influential studies also found that summer is a time when socioeconomic learning gaps widen, this finding has failed to replicate in more recent studies (8, 9) or in European samples (48, 49).”
§ Learning loss due to school closures during the COVID-19 pandemic > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [8] P. T. von Hippel, C. Hamrock, Do test score gaps grow before, during, or between the school years?: Measurement artifacts and what we can know in spite of them. Soc. Sci. 6, 43 (2019). source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [9] M. Kuhfeld, Surprising new evidence on summer learning loss. Phi Delta Kappan 101, 25– 29 (2019). source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [48] P. Verachtert, J. Van Damme, P. Onghena, P. Ghesquière, A seasonal perspective on school effectiveness: Evidence from a Flemish longitudinal study in kindergarten and first grade. Sch. Effect. Sch. Improv. 20, 215– 233 (2009). source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [49] F. Meyer, K. Meissel, S. McNaughton, Patterns of literacy learning in German primary schools over the summer and the influence of home literacy practices. J. Res. Read. 40, 233– 253 (2017). source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Our study represents one of the first attempts to quantify learning loss from COVID-19 using externally validated tests, a representative sample, and techniques that allow for causal inference.”
§ Learning loss due to school closures during the COVID-19 pandemic > Abstract
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The country is close to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) average in school spending and reading performance, but among its top performers in math (32).”
§ Learning loss due to school closures during the COVID-19 pandemic > Study Setting
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [32] A. Schleicher, PISA 2018: Insights and Interpretations (OECD Publishing, 2018).
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The short duration of school closures gave students, educators, and parents little time to adapt.”
§ Learning loss due to school closures during the COVID-19 pandemic > Discussion
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“To identify the model components that exert the most influence on the magnitude of estimates we assessed more than 2,000 alternative models in a specification curve analysis (44) ( SI Appendix, section 7.13).”
§ Learning loss due to school closures during the COVID-19 pandemic > Results > Specification Curve Analysis.
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [44] U. Simonsohn, J. P. Simmons, L. D. Nelson, Specification curve analysis. Nat. Hum. Behav. 4, 1208– 1214 (2020). 32719546 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“Despite favorable conditions, survey evidence from lockdown indicates high levels of dissatisfaction with remote learning (38) and considerable disparities in help with schoolwork and learning resources (39).”
§ Learning loss due to school closures during the COVID-19 pandemic > Study Setting
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [38] M. de Haas, R. Faber, M. Hamersma, How COVID-19 and the Dutch ‘intelligent lockdown’ changed activities, work and travel behaviour: Evidence from longitudinal data in the Netherlands. Transport. Res. Interdisciplinary Perspect. 6. 100150 (2020). PMC7284275 34171019 source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [39] T Bol, Inequality in homeschooling during the corona crisis in the Netherlands. First results from the LISS Panel. SocArXiv [Preprint] (2020). 10.31235/osf.io/hf32q (Accessed 9 February 2021). source
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The high degree of school autonomy in The Netherlands is also likely to have created considerable variation in the pandemic response, possibly explaining the wide school-level variation in estimated learning loss ( SI Appendix, section 7.9).”
§ Learning loss due to school closures during the COVID-19 pandemic > Discussion
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Our difference-in-differences design discards those students who did not take the tests, which might lead to bias if their performance trajectories differ from those we observe.”
§ Learning loss due to school closures during the COVID-19 pandemic > Results > Adjusting for Loss to Follow-up.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Early estimates suggest that grades 3 to 8 students more than 6 mo into the pandemic underperformed by 7.5 percentile points in math but saw no loss in reading achievement (28).”
§ Learning loss due to school closures during the COVID-19 pandemic > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [28] M. Kuhfeld, B. Tarasawa, A. Johnson, E. Ruzek, K. Lewis, “ Learning during COVID-19: Initial findings on students’ reading and math achievement and growth” (NWEA Brief, Portland, OR, 2020).
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We do so using a difference-in-differences design ( SI Appendix, section 4.2) and address loss to follow-up using various techniques: regression adjustment, rebalancing on propensity scores and maximum-entropy weights, and fixed-effects designs that compare students within the same schools and families.”
§ Learning loss due to school closures during the COVID-19 pandemic > Study Setting
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Following school reopenings, tests were taken in person under normal conditions and with minimal social distancing.”
§ Learning loss due to school closures during the COVID-19 pandemic > Results > Knowledge Learned vs. Transitory Influences.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“Studies of school days lost due to other causes are mixed—some find durable effects and spillovers to adult earnings (59, 60), while others report a fadeout of effects over time (61, 62).”
§ Learning loss due to school closures during the COVID-19 pandemic > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [59] A. Ichino, R. Winter-Ebmer, The long-run educational cost of World War II. J. Labor Econ. 22, 57– 87 (2004). source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [60] D. Jaume, A. Willén, The long-run effects of teacher strikes: Evidence from Argentina. J. Labor Econ. 37, 1097– 1139 (2019). source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [61] S. Cattan, D. Kamhöfer, M. Karlsson, T. Nilsson “ The short- and long-term effects of student absence: Evidence from Sweden” (IZA Discussion Paper 10995, Institute of Labor Economics, Bonn, Germany, 2017). source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [62] B. Sacerdote, When the saints go marching out: Long-term outcomes for student evacuees from hurricanes Katrina and Rita. Am. Econ. J. Appl. Econ. 4, 109– 135 (2012). source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“School closures were short in comparative perspective ( SI Appendix, section 1), and the first wave of the pandemic had less of an impact than in other European countries (36, 37).”
§ Learning loss due to school closures during the COVID-19 pandemic > Study Setting
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [36] Johns Hopkins Coronavirus Resource Center, COVID-19 case tracker. https://coronavirus.jhu.edu/data. Accessed 9 February 2021.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [37] P. Tullis, Dutch cooperation made an ‘intelligent lockdown’ a success. Bloomberg Businessweek (4 June 2020).
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“Social distancing measures may have altered factors such as seating arrangements or indoor climate that in turn can influence student performance (41 –43).”
§ Learning loss due to school closures during the COVID-19 pandemic > Results > Knowledge Learned vs. Transitory Influences.
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [41] M. J. Mendell, G. A. Heath, Do indoor pollutants and thermal conditions in schools influence student performance?: A critical review of the literature. Indoor Air 15, 27– 52 (2005). 15660567 source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [42] P. D. Marshall, M. Losonczy-Marshall, Classroom ecology: Relations between seating location, performance, and attendance. Psychol. Rep. 107, 567– 577 (2010). 21117484 source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [43] R. J. Park, J. Goodman, A. P. Behrer, Learning is inhibited by heat exposure, both internationally and within the United States. Nat. Hum. Behav. 5, 19– 27 (2020). 33020588 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“No other country has higher rates of broadband penetration (33, 34), and efforts were made early in the pandemic to ensure access to home learning devices (35).”
§ Learning loss due to school closures during the COVID-19 pandemic > Study Setting
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [33] Statistics Netherlands (CBS), The Netherlands leads Europe in internet access. https://www.cbs.nl/en-gb/news/2018/05/the-Netherlands-leads-europe-in-internet-access. Accessed 9 February 2021.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [34] G. Di Pietro, F. Biagi, P. Costa, Z. Karpinski, J. Mazza, The Likely Impact of COVID-19 on Education: Reflections Based on the Existing Literature and Recent International Datasets (Publications Office of the European Union, 2020).
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [35] F. M. Reimers, A. Schleicher, A Framework to Guide an Education Response to the COVID-19 Pandemic of 2020 (OECD Publishing, 2020).
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The Dutch school system combines centralized and equitable school funding with a high degree of autonomy in school management (30, 31).”
§ Learning loss due to school closures during the COVID-19 pandemic > Study Setting
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [30] H. A. Patrinos, “ School choice in the Netherlands” (CESifo DICE Report 2/2011, ifo Institute for Economic Research, Munich, Germany, 2011).
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [31] H. F. Ladd, E. B. Fiske, Weighted student funding in The Netherlands: A model for the US? J. Pol. Anal. Manag. 30, 470– 498 (2011). source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Next, we balance treatment and control groups on a wider set of covariates, including at the school level, using maximum-entropy weights and the estimated propensity of treatment ( SI Appendix, section 7.4).”
§ Learning loss due to school closures during the COVID-19 pandemic > Results > Adjusting for Loss to Follow-up.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This step reduces the size of our sample by approximately 60%, as not every student has a sibling attending a sampled school within the years that we are able to observe.”
§ Learning loss due to school closures during the COVID-19 pandemic > Materials and Methods > School and Family Fixed Effects.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We interpret it as a test of learning readiness.”
§ Learning loss due to school closures during the COVID-19 pandemic > Materials and Methods > Test Scores.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“The first one is the student monitoring system, which provides our test score data (40). This system comprises a series of mandatory tests that are taken twice a year throughout a child’s primary school education (ages 6 to 12 y).”
§ Learning loss due to school closures during the COVID-19 pandemic > Materials and Methods
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [40] K. F. Vlug, Because every pupil counts: The success of the pupil monitoring system in The Netherlands. Educ. Inf. Technol. 2, 287– 306 (1997). source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Throughout our analyses, we adjust confidence intervals for clustering on schools using robust standard errors.”
§ Learning loss due to school closures during the COVID-19 pandemic > Materials and Methods > Difference-in-Differences Analysis.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Nationally standardized tests are taken across three main subjects: math, spelling, and reading ( SI Appendix, section 3.1).”
§ Learning loss due to school closures during the COVID-19 pandemic > Materials and Methods > Test Scores.
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites SI Appendix, section 3.1
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainn = 3- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“The sample covers 15% of all primary schools and is broadly representative of the national student body ( SI Appendix, section 5.1).”
§ Learning loss due to school closures during the COVID-19 pandemic > Materials and Methods
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites SI Appendix, section 5.1
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the terminology of the test producer, its goal is to assess “technical reading ability”—likely a mix of reading ability, cognitive processing, and verbal fluency.”
§ Learning loss due to school closures during the COVID-19 pandemic > Materials and Methods > Test Scores.
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
The paper relies on this without support.
Students across The Netherlands take the same examination within a given year.
“Students across The Netherlands take the same examination within a given year.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The norm for transforming test results to percentile scores is the same across years, so absolute changes in performance over time are preserved.
“Test results are transformed to percentile scores, but the norm for transformation is the same across years so absolute changes in performance over time are preserved.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The oral reading fluency assessment does not test for the retention of curricular content.
“As this part of the assessment does not test for the retention of curricular content, we would expect it to be less affected by school closures, which is indeed what we find.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
Percentiles were drawn from an underlying normal distribution.
“Assuming that percentiles were drawn from an underlying normal distribution, we use the following formula to convert between one and the other: d=Φ−10.50+δ100, [3] where δ is the treatment effect on the percentile scale, and Φ−1 is the inverse cumulative standard normal distribution.”
The paper relies on this without support.
In the absence of the pandemic, the rate of progress in 2020 would have followed the same trend as in prior years.
“We analyze the rate of progress in 2020 to that in previous years using a difference-in-differences design.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Comprehension of the words is not needed and students and parents are discouraged to prepare for the oral reading fluency test.
“Crucially, comprehension of the words is not needed and students and parents are discouraged to prepare for it.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The test producer's translation keys are based on smaller samples than the study's sample.
“However, as these keys are actually based on smaller samples than that at our disposal, we further impose a uniform distribution in our sample within cells defined by subject, grade, and testing occasion: midyear vs. end of year.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“School attendance is foundational to young people’s educational attainment, social development, and future life opportunities (Engzell et al., 2021; McDonald et al., 2022).”
From Beyond the Classroom: Strengthening Pupil Engagement, Attendance and Belonging through Alternative Education and Community Partnerships (2025) · cites this paper as Engzell et al., 2021
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“The impact is 40 percent larger among those in the least educated homes, suggesting that the pandemic not only increased educational inequality, but that disadvantaged children's skills actually deteriorated.”
From Educational Inequality* (2022) · cites this paper as Engzell, Frey, and Verhagen (2021)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Results from Engzell, Frey, and Verhagen (2021) for an eight-week school closure imply that this gap would further increase by around 0.05 of a standard deviation.”
From Educational Inequality* (2022) · cites this paper as Engzell, Frey, and Verhagen (2021)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Engzell, Frey, and Verhagen (2021) find that in the Netherlands, eight weeks of online rather than in-person learning led to 0.08 of a standard deviation lower test scores for students aged eight to eleven.”
From Educational Inequality* (2022) · cites this paper as Engzell, Frey, and Verhagen (2021)
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“However, the learning loss was up to 60% greater among students from disadvantaged backgrounds (i.e., students from less-educated households), indicating the disproportionate impact of the pandemic on student learning.”
From Impacts of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Student Learning and Opportunity Gaps Across the 2020–2021 School Year: A National Survey of Teachers (2022) · cites this paper as Engzell et al. (2021)
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Several studies have demonstrated that student achievement has been lower during the pandemic compared to prior to the pandemic, with estimates ranging from three percentile points in the Netherlands (Engzell et al., 2021) to more than half of a school year in the U.S. state of Illinois (Streich et al., 2021).”
From Impacts of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Student Learning and Opportunity Gaps Across the 2020–2021 School Year: A National Survey of Teachers (2022) · cites this paper as Engzell et al., 2021
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Results indicated a learning loss equivalent to 3 percentile points despite the relatively short lockdown.”
From Impacts of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Student Learning and Opportunity Gaps Across the 2020–2021 School Year: A National Survey of Teachers (2022) · cites this paper as Engzell et al. (2021)
In the citing paper
“The authors also noted that access to technology alone is not enough to guarantee quality distance learning [6] (p. 11).”
From Effects of Pandemic-Related School Closures on Pupils’ Performance and Learning in Selected Countries: A Rapid Review (2021) · cites this paper as [6]
In the citing paper
“Overall, a learning loss of 3 percentile points or 0.08 standard deviations was determined, whereby the losses in the case of pupils from less educated parents turned out to be 60% greater [6] (p. 1).”
From Effects of Pandemic-Related School Closures on Pupils’ Performance and Learning in Selected Countries: A Rapid Review (2021) · cites this paper as [6]
In the citing paper
“Engzell et al. [6] found that the time-measured learning loss in relation to the progress that would be achieved in a normal school year corresponds to a period of 7.9 to 10.5 weeks of non-learning [6] (p. 10).”
From Effects of Pandemic-Related School Closures on Pupils’ Performance and Learning in Selected Countries: A Rapid Review (2021) · cites this paper as [6]
In the citing paper
“With a sample size of n = 286,515, a significant difference in mean values was found when comparing the control group and the test group.The group of pupils that was tested after the school closures showed significantly worse test values than a comparison group that did not experience any school closures [6] (p. 85).”
From Effects of Pandemic-Related School Closures on Pupils’ Performance and Learning in Selected Countries: A Rapid Review (2021) · cites this paper as [6]
In the citing paper
“Engzell and colleagues quantified the learning loss, taking into account all the differences measured by them, with an overall negative effect of -0.08 standard deviations [6] (p. 1).”
From Effects of Pandemic-Related School Closures on Pupils’ Performance and Learning in Selected Countries: A Rapid Review (2021) · cites this paper as [6]
In the citing paper
“The test values of the group of pupils that were tested after the school closures (test group, M = -1.28,SD = 11.83), were on average significantly lower than those of the comparison group (control group, M = 0.28, SD = 10.99) that had not experienced any school closures [6] (p. 85).”
From Effects of Pandemic-Related School Closures on Pupils’ Performance and Learning in Selected Countries: A Rapid Review (2021) · cites this paper as [6]
In the citing paper
“Also, with regard to the area of spelling, a significantly lower test mean value was reported for the test group (M = 0.71, SD = 17.07, n = 58,627) compared to the control group (M = 0.05, SD = 17.27, n = 284,499) (p.85).”
From Effects of Pandemic-Related School Closures on Pupils’ Performance and Learning in Selected Countries: A Rapid Review (2021) · cites this paper as [6]
In the citing paper
“As pointed out by Engzell et al. (2021), non-causal methods fail to account for trends in student progress prior to the outbreak of Covid-19 and, hence, by assuming a counterfactual where achievement has stayed flat, they generate estimates of learning deficits that are biased downwards.”
From The impact of Covid-19 on student achievement: Evidence from a recent meta-analysis (2023) · cites this paper as Engzell et al. (2021)
In the citing paper
“there is a large consensus that it did not affect students equally.”
From The impact of Covid-19 on student achievement: Evidence from a recent meta-analysis (2023) · cites this paper as Engzell et al., 2021
In the citing paper
“several studies (see, for example, Engzell et al., 2021; Hevia et al., 2022) showed that Covid-19 had a detrimental effect especially on the achievement of students from less advantaged backgrounds.”
From The impact of Covid-19 on student achievement: Evidence from a recent meta-analysis (2023) · cites this paper as Engzell et al., 2021
In the citing paper
“The pandemic has also interrupted education and has adversely affected children’s social and emotional development and mental health.16-19”
From Evaluation of the BNT162b2 Covid-19 Vaccine in Children 5 to 11 Years of Age (2022) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“Covid-19–associated school closures and quarantines also have social and economic costs for families and caregivers.16-19”
From Evaluation of the BNT162b2 Covid-19 Vaccine in Children 5 to 11 Years of Age (2022) · cites this paper as [17]
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Suicidality and self-harm in adolescents before and after the COVID-19 pandemic: a systematic review
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“Academic dif fi culties were ampli fi ed by the COVID - 19 pandemic, following the abrupt closure of schools and the shift to remote learning (104).”
InfluentialSchool Closure Versus Targeted Control Measures for SARS-CoV-2 Infection
Rotevatn, T. A., Elstrøm, P., Greve‐Isdahl, M., Surén, P., Johansen, T. B., & Astrup, E. (2022) · PEDIATRICS · doi:10.1542/peds.2021-055071 · Cited by 12
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“…consistently demonstrated that this sudden shift to remote learning, necessitated by the closure of physical campuses and the imposition of social isolation measures, has had detrimental effects on students ’ learning outcomes (Azevedo et al., 2021; Donnelly & Patrinos, 2021; Engzell et al., 2021).”
OKOYE, K. O., Campos, E., Das, A. K., Chakraborty, V., Ghosh, M., Chakrabarti, A., & Hosseini, S. (2025) · Sustainable Futures · doi:10.1016/j.sftr.2025.100851 · Cited by 41
Bibliometric analysis of islamic education learning loss in the COVID-19 pandemic
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The impact of financial deprivation on children’s cybersecurity knowledge & abilities
Prior, S., & Renaud, K. (2022) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-022-10908-w · Cited by 13
“We are also keenly aware of the time pressures faced by teachers, something that has only be exacerbated by the Covid-19 pandemic as teachers attempt to make up for “lost learning time” (Engzell et al., 2021).”
BackgroundRachmawati, N., Supena, A., Yufiarti, Y., Yarmi, G., & Casmana, A. R. (2022) · The Qualitative Report · doi:10.46743/2160-3715/2022.5432 · Cited by 12
Yoshida, M., Kobashi, Y., Shimazu, Y., Saito, H., Yamamoto, C., Kawamura, T., Wakui, M., Takahashi, K., Ito, N., Nishikawa, Y., et al. (2022) · European Journal of Pediatrics · doi:10.1007/s00431-022-04643-0 · Cited by 11
Blanchard, A. C., Desforges, M., Labbé, A., Nguyen, C. T., Petit, Y., Besner, D., Zinszer, K., Séguin, O., Laghdir, Z., Adams, K., et al. (2022) · CMAJ Open · doi:10.9778/cmajo.20210327 · Cited by 13
Kirsch, C., & Vaıoulı, P. (2023) · Social Sciences & Humanities Open · doi:10.1016/j.ssaho.2023.100433 · Cited by 13
“Results of large-scale assessment tests in Europe, the USA and China demonstrate that students tended to perform less well in mathematics, reading competence and languages in 2020 (Blainey et al., 2020; Engzell et al., 2021; Maldonado & De Witte, 2020; OECD, 2021; Tomasik et al., 2020).”
BackgroundThe impact of the first wave of COVID-19 on students’ attainment, analysed by IRT modelling method
Takács, R., Takács, S., Kárász, J. T., Oláh, A., & Horváth, Z. (2023) · Humanities and Social Sciences Communications · doi:10.1057/s41599-023-01613-1 · Cited by 12
“Engzell et al. (2021) examined nearly 350,000 students’ academic performance before and after the first wave of the pandemic in the Netherlands.”
BackgroundGone with the pandemic: How did Covid-19 affect the academic performance of Colombian students?
Alvarado, L. K. A., Soler, S. C. G., & González, J. C. (2023) · International Journal of Educational Development · doi:10.1016/j.ijedudev.2023.102783 · Cited by 14
Elementary school teachers’ perspectives about learning during the COVID-19 pandemic
Alvarez-Rivero, A., Odgers, C. L., & Ansari, D. (2023) · npj Science of Learning · doi:10.1038/s41539-023-00191-w · Cited by 16
Teachers' Perceptions of Differentiated Learning in Merdeka Curriculum in Elementary Schools
Digna, D., Minsih, M., & Widyasari, C. (2023) · International Journal of Elementary Education · doi:10.23887/ijee.v7i2.54770 · Cited by 12
“The obstacles experienced by students during learning at home result in learning loss (Engzell et al., 2021; Putri & Kaltsum, 2022).”
Perceptions about Teaching in Times of COVID-19 Pandemic: Experience of Secondary Education in Chile
Almonacid-Fierro, A., Philominraj, A. S., Vargas-Vitoria, R., & Fierro, M. A. (2021) · European Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.12973/eu-jer.11.1.457 · Cited by 12
“…of traditional methodologies, i.e., exercises, corrections, lectures, and no use of technology to develop more attractive learning techniques, findings that coincide with the works of Dhawan (2020), Engzell et al. (2021), Ferdig et al. (2020), Joia and Lorenzo (2021) and Lassoued et al. (2020).”
ResultRedirecting Desktop Interface Input to Animate Cross-Reality Avatars
Woodworth, J. W., Broussard, D., & Borst, C. W. (2022) · IEEE Conference on Virtual Reality and 3D User Interfaces (VR) · doi:10.1109/vr51125.2022.00106 · Cited by 12
“This contributed to many students making little progress while learning at home [6].”
BackgroundSocial disparities in students’ intention to enter higher education during the COVID-19 pandemic
Stark, J., Daniel, A., & Twardawski, M. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0267978 · Cited by 15
“, primary and lower secondary school students) [23, 27].”
BackgroundDrey, T., Janek, J., Lang, J., Puschmann, D., Rietzler, M., & Rukzio, E. (2022) · Proceedings of the ACM on Interactive Mobile Wearable and Ubiquitous Technologies · doi:10.1145/3550337 · Cited by 12
“This learning deficit is currently increasing dramatically due to COVID-19 pandemic-related school closures, resulting in an estimated loss of 20% of a school year and only a little or close to zero learning progress during homeschooling [23].”
BackgroundRadinger, T., & Boeskens, L. (2021) · OECD education working papers · doi:10.1787/1f50c70d-en · Cited by 16
Haelermans, C., Jacobs, M., van Vugt, L., Aarts, B., Abbink, H., Smeets, C., van der Velden, R., & van Wetten, S. (2021) · doi:10.31219/osf.io/78fje · Cited by 12
Paola, M. D., Gioia, F., & Scoppa, V. (2022) · Social Science Research Network · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4114561 · Cited by 15
“For instance, Engzell et al. (2021) take advantage of the fact that the Netherlands national examinations for primary school pupils take place twice a year and in 2020”
BackgroundKing, R. B., Yin, H., & Allen, K. (2022) · The Educational and Developmental Psychologist · doi:10.1080/20590776.2023.2148827 · Cited by 12
“Students have experienced significant learning loss during the pandemic (Engzell et al., 2021; Skar et al., 2021; Storey & Zhang, 2021) and a decline in well-being among some stu-”
BackgroundThe Real Learning Loss: A Lost Opportunity to Reimagine Schooling
Robbins, K., & Cipollone, K. (2023) · Educational Studies · doi:10.1080/00131946.2023.2169695 · Cited by 12
“decrease in student academic knowledge (Engzell et al., 2021; Skar et al., 2021; Storey & Zhang, 2021).”
BackgroundRimpelä, A., Lindfors, P. L., Kinnunen, J. M., Myöhänen, A., Hotulainen, R., Koivuhovi, S., & Vainikainen, M. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph182312377 · Cited by 12
“However, the distance education described in the current study is crucially different from the previously reported approaches due to the sudden transition to it at a nationwide scale and the lack of experience and models for implementing it [1].”
Campeau, L., Thistlethwaite, F., Yao, J., Hobbs, A. J., Shahriari, A., Vijh, R., Ng, C., Fung, C., Russel, S., Zlosnik, J. E. A., et al. (2022) · Canadian Journal of Public Health · doi:10.17269/s41997-022-00659-z · Cited by 10
“Children who experienced school closures not only suffered from a loss of learning (Engzell et al., 2021), but also had their physical and mental health impacted (Chaabane et al., 2021).”
BackgroundNutley, S. B., Burén, J., & Thorell, L. B. (2023) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph20166583 · Cited by 13
“Considering that previous studies have demonstrated a significant decline in academic progression due to remote learning [51,52], it is possible that the increase in stress observed in our study is at least partially a result of the cumulative strain of struggling academically during remote learning.”
Nasseri, A., Zhou, T., Ha, V., Zhu, J., Wu, D. T. S., & Ohyama, H. (2023) · Journal of Dental Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.jds.2023.12.018 · Cited by 11
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“The pandemic and responses to it have disrupted US children’s education and development [30,31].”
BackgroundRole of Chatbots in School Education
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Is it Any Wonder, I Reject You First: Pre-Pandemic Perceptions of K-12 Online Learning
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“Given how the pandemic caught everyone off guard, there is little wonder as to why the K-12 response to the shutdown was widely panned as a failure, with continued talk about recovering from the loss of learning that occurred (Engzell et al., 2021).”
BackgroundBrankston, G., Merkley, E., Loewen, P. J., Avery, B. P., Carson, C. A., Dougherty, B. P., Fisman, D. N., Tuite, A. R., Poljak, Z., & Greer, A. L. (2022) · Preventive Medicine Reports · doi:10.1016/j.pmedr.2022.101993 · Cited by 11
An exploration of engineering instructors' pedagogical adaptations early in the COVID ‐19 pandemic
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“Moreover, although research is not consistent, some evidence does validate instructors' general concern that students aren't learning as much as prior years (Engzell et al., 2021; Shin & Hickey, 2021).”
ResultThe role of family composition in students' learning growth during the COVID ‐19 pandemic
de Leeuw, S. G., Haelermans, C., Jacobs, M., van der Velden, R., van Vugt, L., & van Wetten, S. (2023) · Journal of Marriage and the Family · doi:10.1111/jomf.12912 · Cited by 12
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“Policy makers should be aware of the adverse effects of school shutdowns not only for students’ academic development [51], but also for their socioemotional well-being.”
BackgroundRyan, B. J., Kako, M., Fink, R., Şimşek, P., Barach, P. R., Acosta, J., Bhatia, S., Brickhouse, M., Fendt, M. W., Fontenot, A., et al. (2023) · Disaster Medicine and Public Health Preparedness · doi:10.1017/dmp.2023.136 · Cited by 11
Effects of interactive-mobile learning modules in students’ engagement and understanding in genetics
Errabo, D. D. R., & Ongoco, A. A. (2024) · Journal of Research in Innovative Teaching & Learning · doi:10.1108/jrit-01-2024-0023 · Cited by 27
Spitzer, M., Ruiz-García, M., & Moeller, K. (2024) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/bjet.13517 · Cited by 27
Early numeracy development as a foundation of mathematics achievement in primary education
Dierkx, V., van de Rijt, B. A. M., Hessen, D. J., van Luit, H., & van Viersen, S. (2025) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2025.102706 · Cited by 22
AI robots promote South Korean preschoolers' AI literacy and computational thinking
Lee, B., Ku, S., & Ko, K. (2025) · Family Relations · doi:10.1111/fare.13189 · Cited by 15
Longitudinal Outcomes of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Youth Physical Fitness
Pavlovic, A., Leonard, D. S., Walker, T. J., Craig, D. W., Injil, J., & DeFina, L. F. (2025) · JAMA Network Open · doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2025.13721 · Cited by 11
Pediatric mTBI during the COVID-19 pandemic: considerations for evaluation and management
Ransom, D. M. E., Caldwell, C. T., DiVirgilio, E. K., McNally, K. A., Peterson, R. L., Ploetz, D. M., Sady, M., & Slomine, B. S. (2021) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297049.2021.1985101 · Cited by 11
“Complex symptom presentations inherent to mTBI creates challenges to assessing patient and family concerns, particularly given broad reports of elevated mental health and academic concerns across healthy youth due to the pandemic (Engzell et al., 2021; Miranda et al., 2020).”
BackgroundBildung und Resilienz. Gutachten
Anders, Y., Hannover, B., Jungbauer-Gans, M., Köller, O., Lenzen, D., McElvany, N., Seidel, T., Tippelt, R., Wilbers, K., & Woessmann, L. (2022) · Waxmann Verlag GmbH eBooks · doi:10.31244/9783830995500 · Cited by 13
Student confidence in learning during the COVID-19 pandemic: what helped and what hindered?
Guppy, N., Matzat, U., Agapito, J., Archibald, A., Jaeger, A. D., Heap, T., Moreno, M. M. L., Rodrigo, M. M. T., & Bartolic, S. K. (2022) · Higher Education Research & Development · doi:10.1080/07294360.2022.2119372 · Cited by 11
“Some worried that this created a ‘learning loss’ by undermining student cognitive development (Engzell et al., 2021; Kuhfeld et al., 2020).”
BackgroundChimmalee, B., & Anupan, A. (2022) · International Journal of Engineering Pedagogy (iJEP) · doi:10.3991/ijep.v12i6.33775 · Cited by 11
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The ability of low- and High-SES schools to inhibit learning losses during the COVID-19 pandemic
Vit, E. (2022) · Social Sciences & Humanities Open · doi:10.1016/j.ssaho.2022.100393 · Cited by 12
“school closures proved to be greater for students with less educated and lower-income parents [41,42], and students with low-educated parental backgrounds who otherwise performed well”
Investigating the Impact of COVID-19 on E-Learning: Country Development and COVID-19 Response
Bach, M. P., Jaković, B., Jajić, I., & Meško, M. (2023) · Mathematics · doi:10.3390/math11061520 · Cited by 11
Müller, F., Goudeau, S., Stephens, N. K., Aelenei, C., & Sanitioso, R. B. (2023) · International Review of Social Psychology · doi:10.5334/irsp.716 · Cited by 15
“The crisis resulted in less on-campus teaching and more distance learning globally and contributed to the widening of the social-class achievement gap (Betthäuser et al., 2022; Engzell et al., 2021; Goudeau et al., 2021).”
BackgroundNavigating an Uncertain Future
Schoon, I., & Henseke, G. (2023) · Zeitschrift für Psychologie · doi:10.1027/2151-2604/a000530 · Cited by 20
Adaptive Learning Based on Artificial Intelligence to Overcome Student Academic Inequalities
Ansor, F., Zulkifli, N. A., Jannah, D. S. M., & Krisnaresanti, A. (2023) · Journal of Social Science Utilizing Technology · doi:10.55849/jssut.v1i4.663 · Cited by 25
“Although higher education promises prestigeand opportunity, a reality that cannota reality tha cannot be ignored is the existence of academic inequality among students (Engzell, Frey, and Verhagen 2021; Day et al. 2021).”
BackgroundPanskyi, T., Biedroń, S., Grudzień, K., & Korzeniewska, E. (2021) · Sensors · doi:10.3390/s21227511 · Cited by 9
Hosoda-Urban, T., Friedman, D., Kaskas, M. M., Caruso, A. J., Canenguez, K. M., Rotter, N. S., Wozniak, J. R., & Basu, A. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.883955 · Cited by 11
“, 2022), and school-related challenges for children (Engzell et al., 2021; Dudovitz et al., 2022), as well as negative effects on families (Marchetti et al.”
BackgroundHow much do 15-year-olds learn over one year of schooling? An international comparison based on PISA
Avvisati, F., & Givord, P. (2021) · OECD education working papers · doi:10.1787/a28ed097-en · Cited by 11
Educational InequalityPreprint
Blanden, J., Doepke, M., & Stuhler, J. L. (2022) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4114801 · Cited by 15
Having exams during Ramadan: The case of Indonesia
Nuryakin, C., Muchtar, P. A., Massie, N. W. G., & Hambali, S. (2022) · Economics & Human Biology · doi:10.1016/j.ehb.2022.101183 · Cited by 11
The timing of parental unemployment, insurance and children's education
Mari, G., Keizer, R., & van Gaalen, R. I. (2023) · European Societies · doi:10.1080/14616696.2023.2188550 · Cited by 11
Disruptiveness of COVID-19: Differences in Course Engagement, Self-Appraisal, and Learning
Ober, T. M., Cheng, Y., Carter, M. F., & Liu, C. (2023) · AERA Open · doi:10.1177/23328584231177967 · Cited by 11
“Growing evidence indicates that the constraints on the context of emergency online and remote learning affected not only students’ engagement and ability to accurately self-appraise their performance but also their ability to learn and make measurable progress (Engzell et al., 2021).”
BackgroundCOVID-19 vaccine coverage disparities in rural and farm children
VanWormer, J. J., Alicea, G., Weichelt, B. P., Berg, R. L., & Sundaram, M. E. (2022) · Vaccine · doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2022.11.015 · Cited by 11
Chan, J. Y., Byrne, C., Jerusal, J., Liu, A. S., Roberts, J., & Ottmar, E. (2023) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/bjet.13304 · Cited by 13
Qvortrup, A., & Lykkegaard, E. (2023) · Education 3-13 · doi:10.1080/03004279.2023.2186975 · Cited by 10
“The existing studies address the risk that students have missed a substantial amount of learning and potentially su ff er educational losses (Engzell, Frey, and Verhagen 2021) or focus on students ’ mental health and well-being (Jensen and Reimer 2021; Lykkegaard, Qvortrup, and Jensen 2022; Qvortrup…”
BackgroundGambi, L., & Witte, K. D. (2024) · Labour Economics · doi:10.1016/j.labeco.2024.102549 · Cited by 14
Inequality in the shadow: The role of private tutoring in SES achievement gaps
Qi, Z., & Yu, A. (2024) · Social Science Research · doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2024.103053 · Cited by 19
Policy responses to extreme heat and its impact on education: The Philippine experience
Preña, E. M., & Labayo, C. P. (2024) · Policy Futures in Education · doi:10.1177/14782103241288276 · Cited by 15
“…affect students from disadvantaged backgrounds, particularly those lacking access to essential learning tools such as home computers, thereby exacerbating educational inequalities (Engzell et al., 2021; Hammerstein et al., 2021; Kennedy and Strietholt, 2023; Maldonado and De Witte, 2022).”
Coşkun, K., & Kara, C. (2022) · London Review of Education · doi:10.14324/lre.20.1.19 · Cited by 10
Stebbings, S., Rotevatn, T. A., Larsen, V. B., Surén, P., Elstrøm, P., Greve‐Isdahl, M., Johansen, T. B., & Astrup, E. (2022) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-022-13868-5 · Cited by 10
“Preschools Primary Combined Lower secondary Upper secondary Total Outbreaks (n (%)) 298 (25) 457 (40) 33 (3) 190 (16) 225 (19) 1203”
BackgroundTeachers’ Practices During COVID-19: Practices and Perspectives in Elementary and Secondary Settings
Philippakos, Z. A. T., Rocconi, L., Blake, K. A., & Summers, J. J. (2022) · Social Sciences & Humanities Open · doi:10.1016/j.ssaho.2022.100324 · Cited by 12
Bem‐Haja, P., Nossa, P. N., Pereira, D. S., & da Silva, C. F. (2022) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci12100710 · Cited by 10
“Although most studies show a larger decline in mathematics during the pandemic lockdown, both [7,35] showed stronger decrements in reading comprehension than in mathematics after the school closures.”
BackgroundSegers, E., Zandt, M. I. '., Stoep, J. M. G. M., Daniels, L., Roelofs, J., & Gubbels, J. (2022) · Reading and Writing · doi:10.1007/s11145-022-10369-0 · Cited by 16
Yu, S., Liu, H., & Ma, G. (2022) · Applied Research in Quality of Life · doi:10.1007/s11482-022-10127-y · Cited by 10
“And Engzell, Frey, and Verhagen (2021), based on a sample of 350,000 students in Netherland, showed that vulnerable students lagged behind when they learned from home.”
BackgroundPilot Evaluation of the Elementary Social-Emotional Learning Program Sources of Strength
Valido, A., Robinson, L. E., Woolweaver, A. B., Drescher, A., Espelage, D. L., Wright, A. A., Ishmeal, D., Dailey, M. M., Long, A. C. J., & LoMurray, S. (2023) · School Mental Health · doi:10.1007/s12310-023-09567-0 · Cited by 10
“The disruptions associated with the COVID-19 pandemic are likely to have significant, long-term impacts on a variety of youth outcomes (Azevedo et al., 2021; Engzell et al., 2021).”
BackgroundLema, M. D., Rossi, L., & Soncin, M. (2023) · Large-scale Assessments in Education · doi:10.1186/s40536-023-00159-7 · Cited by 10
Wider, W., Chua, B. S., Mutang, J. A., & Ching, P. L. (2023) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2023.1138226 · Cited by 10
“When schools are closed, it causes a disruption in the learning activities that take place inside the schools (Engzell et al., 2021).”
BackgroundAssessing the Impact of COVID-19 Prevention Measures on Adolescent Growth in Italy
Zaccagni, L., Rinaldo, N., Mazzoni, G., Mandini, S., Masotti, S., Toselli, S., Luca, F. D., & Gualdi‐Russo, E. (2023) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare11142101 · Cited by 10
“Many countries worldwide experienced the suspension of face-to-face teaching during the COVID-19 pandemic, such that 95% of the world’s student population seems to be involved [5].”
BackgroundHerrington, D. G., Hilborn, S., Sielaff, E. N., & Sweeder, R. D. (2022) · Chemistry Education Research and Practice · doi:10.1039/d2rp00063f · Cited by 10
Covid-induced school closures in the United States and Germany: long-term distributional effects
Fuchs‐Schündeln, N. (2022) · Economic Policy · doi:10.1093/epolic/eiac052 · Cited by 19
Learning losses from school closure due to the COVID-19 pandemic for Thai kindergartners
Kilenthong, W., Boonsanong, K., Duangchaiyoosook, S., Jantorn, W., & Khruapradit, V. (2023) · Economics of Education Review · doi:10.1016/j.econedurev.2023.102455 · Cited by 10
Early effects of the COVID-19 lockdown on children in north-western Bangladesh
Makino, M., Shonchoy, A., & Wahhaj, Z. (2023) · Oxford Development Studies · doi:10.1080/13600818.2023.2245363 · Cited by 10
“Understanding the socio-economic consequences of the early policy responses to the coronavirus outbreak can help inform the design of future policy (Engzell et al., 2021; World Bank, 2020), not only with regard to the COVID-19 pandemic but other future epidemics and pandemics as well.”
BackgroundSchult, J., Mahler, N., Fauth, B., et al. (2022) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/dfqeg · Cited by 10
Adeniran, A. P., Okoye, D., Yedomiffi, M. P., & Wantchekon, L. (2022) · doi:10.35489/bsg-risewp_2022/120 · Cited by 9
Godøy, A. A., Grøtting, M. W., & Hart, R. K. (2022) · Journal of Population Economics · doi:10.1007/s00148-021-00882-x · Cited by 10
“Early evidence suggests a “COVID learning gap”, with increased social disparities in learning outcomes (Engzell et al. 2021), possibly driven by parents with higher social background giving more extensive support to online learning (BacherHicks et al.”
BackgroundClark, K. C., Bailey, M. J., Wasshuber, S., Huntley, R., Bjorkman, K. K., Bauer, L. C., Paige, C. L., Sawyer, S. L., Czarnik, M., Riggs, M. A., et al. (2023) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-023-15211-y · Cited by 9
“Furthermore the COVID19 pandemic has exacerbated pre-existing educational inequalities; the transition to remote learning has disproportionately impacted low-income households, people with disabilities, and females who were all less likely to access remote learning than their peers [30, 31].”
BackgroundBreit, M., Scherrer, V., Blickle, J., & Preckel, F. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0281779 · Cited by 10
“However, a lower quality of schooling by remote schooling for which teachers were not prepared in addition with a reduced time investment in education [2] over many months may still be very noticeable in intelligence test results.”
BackgroundMethodMendiola, M. S., Manzano-Patiño, A. P., García-Minjares, M., Casanova, E. R. B., Penilla, C. J. H., Goytia-Rodríguez, K., & Martínez-González, A. (2023) · Educational Assessment Evaluation and Accountability · doi:10.1007/s11092-023-09410-9 · Cited by 12
“Data are beginning to emerge regarding learning loss in basic education, but so far, these are scant in higher education (Azevedo et al., 2021; Engzell et al., 2021; Maldonado & De Witte, 2020; Donnelly & Patrinos, 2022).”
The COVID-19 pandemic and measurement of preschoolers’ executive functions.
Perry, K. J., Perhamus, G. R., Lent, M. C., Murray-Close, D. K., & Ostrov, J. M. (2023) · Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1037/pas0001250 · Cited by 13
“These disruptions appear to have had far-reaching implications for youth development and adjustment, including learning loss (e.g., Engzell et al., 2021) and mental health dif fi culties (e.g., Panchal et al., 2021).”
BackgroundLiu, Z. (2023) · SAGE Open · doi:10.1177/21582440231218114 · Cited by 16
“Research showing an academic loss owing to teaching mode is carried out within elementary or secondary schools (Engzell et al., 2021; Maldonado & De Witte, 2022; Schult et al., 2022).”
BackgroundEducational efficiency across Spanish regions: a comparative analysis over time
Ferrera, J. M. C., Sicilia, G., & Simancas, R. (2024) · International Transactions in Operational Research · doi:10.1111/itor.13567 · Cited by 12
Learning Anxiety of Undergraduate Students during COVID-19 Pandemic
Phanchamlong, K., Manee, K., Watwiset, N., Nuangchalerm, P., & Prachagool, V. (2022) · Journal of Educational Issues · doi:10.5296/jei.v8i1.19313 · Cited by 9
“The endless signal of this situation cannot predictable, but social movement and educational activities should be moved on in such appropriated solutions (Engzell et al., 2021; Nuankaew et al., 2021; Phattanawasin et al., 2021).”
BackgroundFronza, I., Corral, L., Wang, X., & Pahl, C. (2022) · IEEE/ACM International Conference on Software Engineering: Software Engineering Education and Training (ICSE-SEET) · doi:10.1145/3510456.3514153 · Cited by 9
“mance in conventional remote learning versus in-person learning [30, 47, 57], the emergency remote teaching context goes in a different direction, with students having a very low performance [3, 13].”
BackgroundPengaruh Pembelajaran Daring terhadap Learning Loss dan Implikasinya terhadap Learning Outcome
Solihat, A. N., Sadiah, A., & Gumilar, G. (2022) · Jurnal Inovasi Pendidikan Ekonomi (JIPE) · doi:10.24036/011167270 · Cited by 13
“Learning loss ini merupakan dampak negatif dari pembelajaran daring (Engzell et al., 2021).”
BackgroundPublic finance in the era of the COVID-19 crisis
Agrawal, D. R., & Bütikofer, A. (2022) · International Tax and Public Finance · doi:10.1007/s10797-022-09769-3 · Cited by 10
“While the short-term losses during the initial spring-2020 lockdown were substantially larger among students from less-educated homes (Engzell et al., 2021; Maldonado & De Witte, 2022), the longer-term exposure to remote online instruction has increased inequality in education even further. von…”
BackgroundHARTATIK, S. (2023) · VOCATIONAL Jurnal Inovasi Pendidikan Kejuruan · doi:10.51878/vocational.v2i4.1868 · Cited by 9
Suwathanpornkul, I., Sarnkhaowkhom, C., Tulmethakaan, M., Sakuntanak, P., & Charoensuk, O. (2023) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-023-01269-1 · Cited by 15
“To handle this learning loss due to school closures as a result of COVID-19, more effective distance education may be required to help solve this problem [26, 38–40].”
BackgroundPark, S., Kultima, A., Ono, K., & Choi, B. (2023) · International Conference on Game Jams, Hackathons, and Game Creation Events (ICGJ) · doi:10.1145/3610602.3610606 · Cited by 10
“While online settings in learning environments were already prevalent before the Covid19 pandemic [6], such a rapid shift from offline to online game jam caused worries of alienation of participants with relatively low activity and interaction levels (cases like [14, 25]).”
Farliana, N., Rusdarti, & Sakitri, W. (2023) · Jurnal Pengabdian Nasional (JPN) Indonesia · doi:10.35870/jpni.v4i3.367 · Cited by 9
“Masa pandemi mengakibatkan berkurangnya kemajuan belajar, sehingga menjadi faktor terjadinya learning loss [1][2].”
BackgroundShaul, S., Lipka, O., Tal, D., Bufman, A., & Dotan, S. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1289145 · Cited by 13
Metadata
- Authors
- Engzell, P., Frey, A., & Verhagen, M. D.
- Affiliations
- Stockholm University (SE)
- University of Oxford (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Engzell, Per
- Frey, Arun
- Verhagen, Mark D.
- Venue
- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
- Publisher
- National Academy of Sciences
- Published
- 2021-04-07
- Volume
- 118
- Issue
- 17
- ISSN
- 0027-8424 (ISSN-L)
- 1091-6490
- PMC
- PMC8092566
- OpenAlex
- W3143968054
- Cited by
- 1,848
- References
- 75
- Citations by year
- 2026: 154 · 2025: 211 · 2024: 312 · 2023: 476 · 2022: 456 · 2021: 231
- FWCI
- 562.67
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- UCL Discovery (University College London) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- SocArXiv (OSF Preprints) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- SocArXiv (OSF Preprints) (submittedVersion)
- Zenodo (CERN European Organization for Nuclear Research) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- Leverhulme Trust
- University of Oxford
- Vetenskapsrådet (2016-07099)
- Forskningsrådet om Hälsa, Arbetsliv och Välfärd (2016-07099)
- Organisation de Coopération et de Développement Économiques
- Economic and Social Research Council
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Education › Education during COVID-19 pandemic
- Social Sciences › Education › School Choice and Performance
- Social Sciences › Economics, Econometrics and Finance › Economics and Econometrics › COVID-19 Pandemic Impacts
- Keywords
- learning loss, school closures, COVID-19 pandemic, lockdown, national examinations, academic performance, home background, parental education, home-based learning, educational inequality
- MeSH terms
- COVID-19, SARS-CoV-2, Child, Female, Humans, Learning, Male, Netherlands, Quarantine, Schools, Pandemics
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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