Human Vomeronasal Organ Function: A Critical Review of Best and Worst Cases

May combine two claims.

The epithelium lining the human VNO is unlike that of VNOs in other species and unlike that of olfactory or respiratory epithelium in humans.

“The epithelium lining the human VNO is unlike that of VNOs in other species and unlike that of olfactory or respiratory epithelium in humans (Moran et al., 1991;Stensaas et al., 1991).”

• cites Moran et al., 1991 sourcePartly supported

  The paper’s conclusion describes the human VNO lining as unlike other epithelial linings described in the human body, supporting the comparison with human olfactory and respiratory epithelium. In “The fine structure of the VNO in man,” however, it says some human VNO cells resemble cells in the rat VNO’s nonsensory epithelium. The broader claim that the lining is unlike VNO epithelium in other species is therefore not fully supported. (LLM, conf=0.83)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Stensaas et al., 1991 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The human vomeronasal epithelium differs in appearance from both the sensory and non-sensory epithelia in the VNOs of other species and from nasal 'respiratory' epithelium.

“The human vomeronasal epithelium differs in appearance from both the sensory and non-sensory epithelia in the VNOs of other species and from nasal 'respiratory' epithelium (Moran et al., 1991;Stensaas et al., 1991).”

• cites Moran et al., 1991 sourcePartly supported

  In “Does the human VNO contain sensory receptors?” (page unavailable), the paper says human VNO cells are not ultrastructurally identical to sensory neurons described in other mammals. “The fine structure of the human VNO” distinguishes a ciliated cell from those in typical respiratory epithelium. But “The fine structure of the VNO in man” says human VNO cells resemble cells in the nonsensory VNO epithelium of mammals such as rats, so the claimed difference from nonsensory epithelium is not supported. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Stensaas et al., 1991 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The recognition of newborn lambs by ewes also appears to depend on the main olfactory system, although a vomeronasal contribution has also been reported.

“The recognition of newborn lambs by ewes also appears to depend on the main olfactory system (Levy et al., 1995), although a vomeronasal contribution has also been reported (Booth and Katz, 2000).”

• cites Levy et al., 1995 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Booth and Katz, 2000 sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Reproductive suppression in subordinate females, as may occur in some primate species, may also involve a conservation of metabolic effort until more favorable circumstances arise.

“Reproductive suppression in subordinate females, as may occur in some primate species (Barrett et al., 1993), may also involve a conservation of metabolic effort until more favorable circumstances arise.”

• cites Barrett et al., 1993 sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

The human embryonic VNO contains bipolar cells similar to the developing vomeronasal sensory neurons of other species and also generates LHRH-producing cells as in other species.

“It contains bipolar cells similar to the developing vomeronasal sensory neurons of other species and also generates luteinizing hormone releasing hormone (LHRH)producing cells as in other species (Boehm et al., 1994;Kajer and Fischer Hansen, 1996).”

• cites Boehm et al., 1994 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Kajer and Fischer Hansen, 1996Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Some authors were unable to find any VNO structure at later stages (19 weeks), although others have shown a simplified but clear VNO continuing to increase in size up to at least 30 weeks.

“The latter were unable to find any VNO structure at later stages (19 weeks), although others have shown a simplified but clear VNO continuing to increase in size up to at least 30 weeks (Bohm and Gasser, 1993;Smith et al., 1997).”

• cites Bohm and Gasser, 1993Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Smith et al., 1997 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The responsive neurons were in the apical zone of the vomeronasal epithelium where most neurons appear to express members of the V1R class of putative vomeronasal receptor genes.

“The responsive neurons were in the apical zone of the vomeronasal epithelium where most neurons appear to express members of the V1R class of putative vomeronasal receptor genes.”

May combine two claims.

Axon bundles are reported in the submucosa, but do not appear to arise from axon bundles penetrating the lamina propria in the same way as in vomeronasal epithelia of other species.

“Axon bundles are reported in the submucosa (Stensaas et al., 1991), but do not appear to arise from axon bundles penetrating the lamina propria in the same way as in vomeronasal epithelia of other species.”

• cites Stensaas et al., 1991 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

These elongated cells have not been shown to have axons leaving the epithelium nor to make synaptic contact with axons in the epithelium, so if they are chemosensitive they have no obvious way of communication with the brain.

“They have not been shown to have axons leaving the epithelium nor to make synaptic contact with axons in the epithelium, so if they are chemosensitive they have no obvious way of communication with the brain.”

May combine two claims.

Many elongated cells in the human VNO present a microvillar surface to the lumen but most are not similar to microvillar vomeronasal sensory organs (VSNs) of other species.

“There are many elongated cells presenting a microvillar surface to the lumen of the organ but most are not similar to microvillar vomeronasal sensory organs (VSNs) of other species.”

May combine two claims.

Its relationship to animal vomeronasal genes is not good evidence for such a function and throws no light on the question of human vomeronasal function.

“However, its relationship to animal vomeronasal genes is not good evidence for such a function and throws no light on the question of human vomeronasal function.”

May combine two claims.

The adult human VNO structure is reported at least unilaterally in 90% or more of subjects in some reports or in 50% or fewer in other reports.

“The structure is reported at least unilaterally in 90% or more of subjects in some reports or in 50% or fewer in other reports.”

May combine two claims.

The location of the adult human VNO structure is consistent with the location of the VNO in embryos and it has a similar simplified form, with no large blood vessels, cavernous sinuses or supporting cartilage.

“The location of this structure is consistent with the location of the VNO in embryos (Trotier et al., 2000) and it has a similar simplified form, with no large blood vessels, cavernous sinuses or supporting cartilage.”

• cites Trotier et al., 2000Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

There is evidence in these reports for a systemic physiological response to this stimulation and for an alteration of mood.

“There is also evidence in these reports for a systemic physiological response to this stimulation and although anecdotal evidence suggests no conscious response in awake human subjects, there is evidence for an alteration of mood.”

May combine two claims.

There is no evidence that the nervus terminalis is chemosensory or that the human terminalis nerve carries the axons of VSNs, but it may innervate the vomeronasal epithelium.

“There is no evidence that this nerve is chemosensory or that the human terminalis nerve carries the axons of VSNs (although the two do run together in most mammals), but it may innervate the vomeronasal epithelium (Witkin and Silverman, 1983;Wirsig and Leonard, 1986).”

• cites Witkin and Silverman, 1983 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Wirsig and Leonard, 1986 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Trotier et al. estimate ~92% with some evidence of at least one VNO pit in subjects with no septal surgery examined multiple times, but a substantially lower number after septal surgery.

“Trotier et al. estimate ~92% with some evidence of at least one VNO pit in subjects with no septal surgery examined multiple times, but a substantially lower number after septal surgery (Trotier et al., 2000).”

• cites Trotier et al., 2000Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The best candidates for VSNs, those expressing NSE, have not been traced in connectivity with axons and neither have any other cells of the human VNO.

“The best candidates for VSNs, those expressing NSE, have not been traced in connectivity with axons and neither have any other cells of the human VNO.”

May combine two claims.

Expression of these genes in the vomeronasal epithelium is no guarantee of pheromone receptor function because some pheromones are clearly detected by the main olfactory system and possible non-pheromone functions of the vomeronasal system have not been investigated.

“Their expression in the vomeronasal epithelium is no guarantee: some pheromones are clearly detected by the main olfactory system (see below) and possible non-pheromone functions of the vomeronasal system (as in snakes) have not been investigated.”

May combine two claims.

There is no trace of the AOB in adult humans, although it is present in the fetus, and it is generally reported missing in rhesus monkeys and other old world primates.

“There is no trace of this structure in adult humans (Humphrey 1940;Meisami and Bhatnagar, 1998), although it is present in the fetus (Chuah and Zeng, 1987), and it is generally reported missing in rhesus monkeys and other old world primates (Wysocki, 1979;Stephan et al., 1982).”

• cites Humphrey 1940 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Meisami and Bhatnagar, 1998 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Chuah and Zeng, 1987Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

These genes are expressed in VSNs and are similar in apparent transmembrane organization to olfactory receptor genes, but differ in much of their DNA sequence.

“These genes are expressed in VSNs and are similar in apparent transmembrane organization to olfactory receptor genes (Buck and Axel, 1991), but differ in much of their DNA sequence.”

• cites Buck and Axel, 1991 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Axons are observed in the epithelium, but not in continuity or in synaptic contact with epithelial cells.

“Axons are observed in the epithelium (Stensaas et al., 1991), but not in continuity or in synaptic contact with epithelial cells.”

• cites Stensaas et al., 1991 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

There are axons within the human VNO and Schwann cell-wrapped bundles of axons underlying it, so it is somewhat surprising that Trotier et al. did not find S100 expression close to the VNO.

“There are axons within the human VNO and Schwann cell-wrapped bundles of axons underlying it (Stensaas et al., 1991;Jahnke and Merker, 2000), so it is somewhat surprising that Trotier et al. did not find S100 expression close to the VNO (Trotier et al., 2000).”

• cites Stensaas et al., 1991 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Jahnke and Merker, 2000 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Trotier et al., 2000Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

There is no serious error in methodology that is obvious from the published papers, so they have to be taken seriously.

“There is no serious error in methodology that is obvious from the published papers, so they have to be taken seriously.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

These genes were labeled 'putative pheromone receptor genes', although at the time of their discovery the evidence that they might code for pheromone receptor molecules was tenuous.

“These genes were labeled 'putative pheromone receptor genes', although at the time of their discovery the evidence that they might code for pheromone receptor molecules was tenuous.”

May combine two claims.

The nervus terminalis characteristically connects the VNO and the brain in the fetus and clearly persists in human adults.

“The nervus terminalis (Brookover, 1914;Pearson, 1941) characteristically connects the VNO and the brain in the fetus and clearly persists in human adults (Brookover, 1914).”

• cites Brookover, 1914 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Pearson, 1941 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Genes similar to the vomeronasal receptor genes are also present in the human genome; those found in initial searches are clearly pseudogenes.

“Genes similar to the vomeronasal receptor genes are also present in the human genome.Those found in initial searches through the genome are clearly pseudogenes (Dulac and Axel, 1995;Herrada and Dulac, 1997), i.e. they have defects in their sequence that would prevent transcription and translation of the expected transmembrane protein.”

• cites Dulac and Axel, 1995 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Herrada and Dulac, 1997 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The endoscopic appearance of the VNO pit can vary, unequivocal on one inspection and invisible on a later inspection, or vice versa.

“Trotier et al. recently demonstrated that the endoscopic appearance of the VNO pit can vary, unequivocal on one inspection and invisible on a later inspection, or vice versa (Trotier et al., 2000).”

• cites Trotier et al., 2000Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Rodriguez et al. reported the discovery of a previously undetected human gene closely related to the V1R family in rodents, and it is expressed in the main olfactory epithelium.

“In a recent paper Rodriguez et al. reported the discovery of a previously undetected human gene closely related to the V1R family in rodents (Rodriguez et al., 2000).Whether it is expressed in human vomeronasal epithelium was not reported, but it is expressed in the main olfactory epithelium.”

• cites Rodriguez et al., 2000 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Not all human sequences related to vomeronasal receptor genes have been investigated in detail, so this negative evidence should be viewed with some caution.

“Not all human sequences related to vomeronasal receptor genes have been investigated in detail, so this negative evidence should be viewed with some caution.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Stoddart's argument that there might be evolutionary pressure for loss of human vomeronasal function is logically circular in the context of an evaluation of VNO function because it starts with the premise that there is no human VNO.

“Whatever its anthropological merit, this argument is logically circular in the context of an evaluation of VNO function because it starts with the premise that there is no human VNO.”

• cites Stoddart, 1991Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The hormonal changes elicited by steroid chemicals in these studies are not evidence for a physiological connection between the VNO region and the brain and provide no evidence for VNO function.

“The hormonal changes elicited by steroid chemicals in these studies are not evidence for a physiological connection between the VNO region and the brain and provide no evidence for VNO function.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

There is no requirement that vomeronasal chemoreceptors be stimulated only by non-volatile chemicals.

“However, there is no requirement that vomeronasal chemoreceptors be stimulated only by non-volatile chemicals.”

May combine two claims.

The steroids elicited clear EVG responses; the conventional odors did not.

“The steroids elicited clear EVG responses; the conventional odors did not.”

May combine two claims.

Repeated stimulus delivery over a prolonged period would make low level stimulation of other nasal sensory systems or systemic uptake of stimulus chemicals more likely.

“Furthermore, repeated stimulus delivery over a prolonged period would make low level stimulation of other nasal sensory systems or systemic uptake of stimulus chemicals more likely.”

May combine two claims.

The precise location of the recording electrode in EVG recording experiments is not well described, but its effective recording volume is likely to be biased towards the regions close to the opening (VNO pit).

“The precise location of the recording electrode in EVG recording experiments is not well described, but its effective recording volume is likely to be biased towards the regions close to the opening (VNO pit).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Sensory input of any kind in humans, unless signaling imminent danger, is often subordinate to experiential and cultural factors.

“Sensory input of any kind in humans, unless signaling imminent danger, is often subordinate to experiential and cultural factors.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Any local VNO response must be communicated to the brain before a sensory communication pathway is established.

“However, as discussed above, any local VNO response must be communicated to the brain before a sensory communication pathway is established.”

May combine two claims.

The trend towards menstrual synchronization arises from either shortening or lengthening of the cycle by secretions produced at different phases of the donor's cycle.

“The trend towards synchronization arises from either shortening or lengthening of the cycle by secretions produced at different phases of the donor's cycle [but see the comment by Whitten (Whitten, 1999)].”

• cites Stern and McClintock, 1998 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Whitten, 1999 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

It would seem surprising if all olfactory/chemosensory communication were lost in humans.

“It would seem surprising if all olfactory/chemosensory communication were lost.”

May combine two claims.

There are close connections between the vomeronasal system and the amygdala and limbic system, the seat of emotional, hormonal and autonomic control, but only indirect connections with the cerebral cortex.

“There are close connections with the amygdala and limbic system (Halpern, 1987;Meredith, 1991), the seat of emotional, hormonal and autonomic control, but there are only indirect connections with the cerebral cortex, generally considered to be the site of consciousness.”

• cites Halpern, 1987Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Meredith, 1991 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Androstadienone and 1,3,5(10)16 estratetraen-3-ol elicit sexually dimorphic EVGs and are related to skin chemicals claimed to be human pheromones.

“These are substances that elicit sexually dimorphic EVGs and are related to skin chemicals claimed to be human pheromones.”

• cites Jacob and McClintock, 2000 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Intra-specific chemical communication, some of which is vomeronasal and some olfactory, is a common feature in land mammals.

“Intra-specific chemical communication, some of which is vomeronasal and some olfactory, is a common feature in land mammals.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Higher primates have highly developed visual systems and reduced olfactory systems, but still use olfactory information.

“Higher primates have highly developed visual systems and reduced olfactory systems, but still use olfactory information.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Preti and Wysocki concluded that chemical communication does occur and are willing to call the chemical mediators pheromones in some cases.

“They conclude that chemical communication does occur and are willing to call the chemical mediators pheromones in some cases.”

• cites Preti and Wysocki, 1999Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Stoddart's argument also assumes that detection of 'pheromones' signaling reproductive state would be a vomeronasal function.

“It also assumes that detection of 'pheromones' signaling reproductive state would be a vomeronasal function.”

• cites Stoddart, 1991Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The EVG is reported not to be eliminated by topical lidocaine, a local anesthetic, or atropine, an autonomic cholinergic antagonist.

“The EVG is reported (again without experimental details) not to be eliminated by topical lidocaine, a local anesthetic, or atropine, an autonomic cholinergic antagonist (Monti-Bloch et al., 1998b).”

• cites Monti-Bloch et al., 1998bNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Monti Bloch et al. have reported preliminary evidence that bipolar cells aspirated from the human VNO pit show electrical responses to some 'vomeropherins'.

“As a second type of response, Monti Bloch et al. have also reported preliminary evidence that bipolar cells aspirated from the human VNO pit show an electrical responses to some 'vomeropherins' (Monti-Bloch et al., 1998b).”

• cites Monti-Bloch et al., 1998bNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The report that local anesthetics fail to block the EVG indicates that nerve transmission is not involved, which rules out CNS reflexes.

“The report that local anesthetics fail to block the EVG indicates that nerve transmission is not involved, which rules out CNS reflexes.”

May combine two claims.

Although the menstrual synchronization effect appears chemosensory, there is no evidence that it is due to vomeronasal sensory input.

“The substances involved are unknown and although the effect does appear to be chemosensory, there is no evidence that it is due to vomeronasal sensory input.”

May combine two claims.

Other studies used a different type of stimulator which was not described in detail and for which there were no control experiments to determine stimulus spread.

“Other studies (Berliner et al., 1996) used a different type of stimulator which was not described in detail and for which there were no control experiments to determine stimulus spread.”

• cites Berliner et al., 1996 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

These systemic responses include changes in blood pressure and heart rate, small but significant changes in hormonal levels, and some changes in mood.

“These include changes in blood pressure and heart rate, small but significant changes in hormonal levels (Monti-Bloch et al., 1998a) and some changes in mood (Grosser et al., 2000).”

• cites Monti-Bloch et al., 1998aNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Grosser et al., 2000 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The main olfactory system in general has good connections with cerebral cortex, but also has connections to the amygdala.

“The main olfactory system in general has good connections with cerebral cortex, but also has connections to the amygdala.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

In cases where main olfactory input is the only important information on pheromones, it is unknown whether information about main olfactory pheromones has access to the cortex or is routed through the amygdala and basal forebrain.

“However, in the cases where main olfactory input is the only important information on pheromones we still have no idea whether information about main olfactory pheromones has access to the cortex or is routed through the amygdala and basal forebrain.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

These experiments have not been published in a fully refereed report.

“These experiments have not been published in a fully refereed report.”

May combine two claims.

Subjects generally reported no sensation from direct chemical stimulation of the VNO, even when an EVG was recorded, but they reported an odor sensation when an EOG was elicited.

“The subjects generally reported no sensation from direct chemical stimulation of the VNO, even when an EVG was recorded, but they reported an odor sensation when an EOG was elicited.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Monti-Bloch et al. deduce a physiological connection with the brain because stimulus delivery to the VNO pit elicited several systemic responses.

“Although no anatomical connection has been demon-strated, Monti-Bloch et al. deduce a physiological connection with the brain because stimulus delivery to the VNO pit elicited several systemic responses (Monti-Bloch and Grosser, 1991Grosser, , 1998a,b),b).”

• cites Monti-Bloch and Grosser, 1991 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Grosser, 1998a,bNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Preti and Wysocki's conclusions are based on specific examples, but a similar conclusion would not be outrageous on basic principles.

“Preti and Wysocki's conclusions are based on specific examples, but a similar conclusion would not be outrageous on basic principles.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Priming pheromones produce a change of state in the receiver, usually a change in hormonal secretion that primes the animal for a later response.

“Priming pheromones produce a change of state in the receiver, usually a change in hormonal secretion that primes the animal for a later response.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

We do not need to distinguish categorically between priming and signaling communications: both are essentially informational.

“Perhaps we don't need to distinguish categorically between priming and signaling communications: both are essentially informational.”

May combine two claims.

One of the prime examples of main olfactory pheromones, nipple search behavior in rabbits, appears not to be learned, although the same response pattern can be conditioned to arbitrary odors.

“Furthermore, one of the prime examples of main olfactory pheromones, nipple search behavior in rabbits, appears not to be learned, although the same response pattern can be conditioned to arbitrary odors.”

May combine two claims.

Some benefit to the receiver in avoiding parasite transmission may be associated with avoidance of fecal odors, but a similar benefit with respect to general body odors is less likely, and a benefit to the sender in either case seems doubtful if no definite message is transmitted.

“Some benefit to the receiver in avoiding parasite transmission may be associated with avoidance of fecal odors, but a similar benefit with respect to general body odors is less likely, and a benefit to the sender in either case seems doubtful if no definite message is transmitted.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

It may well be in both the ewe-lamb and Bruce effect cases that the learning involved is imprinting of a particular combination from a limited set of signals.

“It may well be in both of these cases that the learning involved is imprinting of a particular combination from a limited set of signals.”

May combine two claims.

In the rabbit case, the chemical is not a pheromone although a response normally elicited by pheromonal communication has been linked to it by conditioning.

“In this case the chemical is not a pheromone although a response normally elicited by pheromonal communication has been linked to it by conditioning.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

There are many biological chemicals that can be expected to evoke behavioral and mood changes.

“There are many biological chemicals that can be expected to evoke behavioral and mood changes.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Inter-specific communication could be mutually beneficial, for example where chemosensory information about defense chemicals benefits the receiver by allowing avoidance.

“Inter-specific communication could be mutually beneficial, for example where chemosensory information about defense chemicals benefits the receiver by allowing avoidance.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Some responses, such as avoidance and disgust with fecal and body odors, may be culturally determined.

“Some of these responses, such as avoidance and disgust with fecal and body odors, may be culturally determined.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The essence of the pheromone concept is that a particular chemical or complex of chemicals communicates meaning and, thus, must be identified.

“The essence of the concept is that a particular chemical or complex of chemicals communicates meaning and, thus, must be identified.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Releasing pheromones were originally considered to release a stereotyped behavioral pattern that required no further information for its completion.

“The other class of pheromones, releasing pheromones, were originally considered to release a stereotyped behavioral pattern that required no further information for its completion.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Chemical communication occurs in humans.

“Chemical communication occurs in humans.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The concept of releasing pheromones seemed inappropriate for mammals, where responses are often modified by experience or other contingencies, and behavioral responses are now said to be elicited by signaling pheromones.

“This concept seemed inappropriate for mammals, where responses are often modified by experience or other contingencies, and behavioral responses are now said to be elicited by 'signaling' pheromones (Bronson, 1971(Bronson, , 1976;;Albone, 1984).”

• cites Bronson, 1971Not checked — no full text of the source
• cites Bronson, 1976 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Albone, 1984Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Identifying mutual benefit in a given case is not always easy, but the criterion provides a conceptual framework for understanding the establishment of a chemical communication.

“Identifying mutual benefit in a given case is not always easy, but the criterion provides a conceptual framework for understanding the establishment of a chemical communication.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

Too rigid a definition can make its applicability to real situations so limited that it is useless.

“Too rigid a definition can make its applicability to real situations so limited that it is useless.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Odor communication between flowers and pollinating insects is mutually beneficial, but is not pheromonal because it occurs across species.

“Odor communication between flowers and pollinating insects is mutually beneficial, but I would not label it pheromonal because it occurs across species, even though its evolutionary mechanisms may be similar to those maintaining intra-specific mutually beneficial communication.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The term pheromone was coined to describe a chemical substance which carries a message about the physiological or behavioral state of an insect to members of its own species, resulting in a specific reaction.

“The term pheromone was coined to describe a chemical substance which carries a message about the physiological or behavioral state of an insect to members of its own species, resulting in 'a specific reaction, for example a definite behaviour or a developmental process' (Karlson and Luscher, 1959).”

• cites Karlson and Luscher, 1959 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

These are not pheromone communications because they are not mutually beneficial and not intra-specific.

“These are not pheromone communications because they are not mutually beneficial and not intra-specific.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The existence of a functional VNO in humans would not be ruled out either by the presence or the absence of pheromone communication in humans nor, if present, by any of its features, such as learned versus unlearned responses.

“The existence of a functional VNO in humans would not be ruled out either by the presence or the absence of pheromone communication in humans nor, if present, by any of its features, such as learned versus unlearned responses.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Too broad a definition devalues the term and also makes it useless.

“Similarly, too broad a definition devalues the term and also makes it useless.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

It can be argued that there is no need for a special term for mutually beneficial chemical communication, but some distinction between communication and a casual use of chemosensory information does seem a useful distinction.

“It can be argued (Beauchamp et al., 1976) that there is no need for a special term for mutually beneficial chemical communication, but, as emphasized by Karlson and Luscher (Karlson and Luscher, 1959), some distinction between communication and a casual use of chemosensory information does seem a useful distinction.”

• cites Beauchamp et al., 1976 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Karlson and Luscher, 1959 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

In humans, mood can affect future behavior (a sign of information transfer) and reliable biases in behavior could have evolutionary consequences.

“We know that in humans mood can affect future behavior (a sign of information transfer) and reliable biases in behavior could have evolutionary consequences.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Particular chemicals may be associated with particular objects, but there may be no necessity for the chemicals to be identified, and the associations can be reassigned.

“Particular chemicals may be associated with particular objects, but there may be no necessity for the chemicals to be identified, and the associations can be reassigned.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

A change of mood on exposure to a human-derived chemical does not adequately define a pheromone.

“On the other hand, a change of mood on exposure to a human-derived chemical (Grosser et al., 2000;Jacob and McClintock, 2000) does not adequately define a pheromone.”

• cites Grosser et al., 2000 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Jacob and McClintock, 2000 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

There are other sensory systems that could be involved in chemical communication.

“There are other sensory systems that could be involved.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Preti and Wysocki concluded that there is evidence for priming pheromones in humans, including the data on menstrual cycle shifts, although the latter do not clearly meet the mutual benefit criterion proposed here.

“They concluded that there is evidence for priming pheromones in humans, including the data on menstrual cycle shifts (although the latter do not clearly meet the mutual benefit criterion proposed here) (Preti and Wysocki, 1999).”

• cites Preti and Wysocki, 1999Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The mutual benefit requirement would require that the communication contributed to evolutionary fitness for both sender and receiver.

“This would require that the communication contributed to evolutionary 'fitness' for both sender and receiver.”

May combine two claims.

In the presence of male stimuli, group housed females return to estrus cycling (the Whitten Effect), clearly a mutually beneficial response.

“In the presence of male stimuli, group housed females return to estrus cycling (the 'Whitten Effect') (Whitten, 1959), clearly a mutually beneficial response.”

• cites Whitten, 1959Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

There seems to be some advantage to arbitrarily limiting the term pheromone to intra-specific communication.

“Nevertheless, there seems to be some advantage to our communication in arbitrarily limiting the term pheromone to intra-specific communication.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

It is clear in the original description, and in a later more extensive review of examples, that pheromone communication was to be real communication, beneficial to the sender and, by implication, to the receiver.

“It is clear in the original description, and in a later more extensive review of examples (Karlson and Butenandt, 1959), that this was to be real communication, beneficial to the sender and, by implication, to the receiver.”

• cites Karlson and Luscher, 1959 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Karlson and Butenandt, 1959 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

This mechanism is less suitable for communication where the messages have special meanings.

“This mechanism is less suitable for communication where the messages have special meanings.”

May combine two claims.

The response of newborn rabbits to the mother's nipple and the standing response of a receptive female pig to the male's pheromone both depend on the main olfactory system.

“The response of newborn rabbits to the mother's nipple (Hudson and Distel, 1986), referred to above, and the standing response of a receptive female pig to the male's pheromone (Dorries et al., 1997) both depend on the main olfactory system.”

• cites Hudson and Distel, 1986 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Dorries et al., 1997Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

If we concentrate on pheromone communication rather than pheromone chemicals, we avoid definitional problems associated with chemicals that have different meanings in different contexts or to different individuals.

“Furthermore, if we concentrate on pheromone communication rather than pheromone chemicals, we avoid definitional problems associated with chemicals that have different meanings in different contexts or to different individuals, for example mature versus immature or male versus female.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

If the mutual benefit requirement is included as an explicit part of the definition, the application of the term pheromone becomes more restricted but more scientifically useful.

“If this mutual benefit requirement is included as an explicit part of the definition (Rutowski, 1981;Meredith, 1983), the application of the term becomes more restricted but more scientifically useful.”

• cites Rutowski, 1981 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Meredith, 1983 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Non-specialist functions of mammalian olfactory systems may involve a simple association between a complex of chemicals and an external situation, permitting later recognition of similar situations.

“Non-specialist functions of mammalian olfactory systems may involve a simple association between a complex of chemicals and an external situation, permitting later recognition of similar situations.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

In cases where subordinate and dominant females are genetically related, there might be some increase in inclusive fitness.

“In cases where the subordinate and dominant females are genetically related there might be some increase in inclusive fitness (inclusive fitness takes into account an individual's contribution to the reproductive success of related individuals that carry some of the same genes).”

May combine two claims.

In the case of puberty acceleration in mice, the mutual benefit is clear, and a good case can be made for many other priming pheromonal communications in mice.

“In this case the mutual benefit is clear, and a good case can be made for many other priming pheromonal communications in mice.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The authors did not mean that the individual organism created this capacity, but that it was established and maintained by natural selection.

“We can be sure that the authors did not mean that the individual organism created this capacity, but that it was established and maintained by natural selection.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Preti and Wysocki did not find solid evidence for signaling pheromones but point out that mammalian, and especially human, behavior is influenced by many factors.

“They did not find solid evidence for signaling pheromones but they point out that mammalian, and especially human, behavior is influenced by many factors.”

• cites Preti and Wysocki, 1999Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

The fact that the same chemicals may be used by different species, whether or not in different combinations or different circumstances, is not a problem.

“The fact that the same chemicals may be used by different species, whether or not in different combinations or different circumstances, is also not a problem.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Where a mutual advantage does not seem reasonable, communication is suspect.

“Where a mutual advantage does not seem reasonable, communication is suspect.”

May combine two claims.

The recognition of a mate's pheromone signature in the pregnancy block or 'Bruce effect' in mice also appears to be learned, but this is a vomeronasal process.

“The recognition of a mate's pheromone signature in the pregnancy block or 'Bruce effect' in mice also appears to be learned, but this is a vomeronasal process.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Many examples of a specific reaction to biological chemicals are excluded from the category of pheromone communications.

“Many examples of 'a specific reaction' to biological chemicals are then excluded from the category of 'pheromone communications'.”

May combine two claims.

The mutual benefit criterion implies that meaning is not infinitely reassignable; that it is not just an association even though there are instances where arbitrary odors can be substituted for preprogrammed stimuli.

“It does imply that meaning is not infinitely reassignable; that it is not just an association even though there are instances where arbitrary odors can be substituted for preprogrammed stimuli.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

If there is no communication there seems no reason to use a special term.

“If there is no communication there seems no reason to use a special term.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

If we didn't have the positive evidence from EVG, autonomic and psychological responses, reasonable scientific judgment would assign the role of detecting human-derived chemicals that might be involved in chemical communication to the main olfactory system.

“If we didn't have the positive evidence from EVG, autonomic and psychological responses, reasonable scientific judgment would assign the role of detecting human-derived chemicals that might be involved in chemical communication to the main olfactory system.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The presence or absence of pheromones and pheromonal communication is independent of the existence and/or functionality of a human VNO.

“The presence or absence of pheromones and pheromonal communication is independent of the existence and/or functionality of a human VNO.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

Ignoring the evidence for vomeronasal function because most of it comes with commercial baggage is not a rational scientific response in the absence of evidence for error, bias or fraud.

“However, ignoring the evidence for vomeronasal function because most of it comes with commercial baggage is not a rational scientific response in the absence of evidence for error, bias or fraud.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The EVG constitutes evidence for a selective and sensitive response to human-derived chemicals located in the region of the VNO.

“The EVG constitutes evidence for a selective and sensitive response to human-derived chemicals located in the region of the VNO.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The electrical and systemic responses recorded from the VNO region are not artifacts of electrode movement or leakage of stimuli to the olfactory area.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

The expression of a vomeronasal-type receptor gene in humans raises the possibility that such genes may underlie chemosensitivity in the vomeronasal region.

“The expression of a vomeronasal-type receptor gene in humans raises the possibility that such genes may underlie chemosensitivity in the vomeronasal region.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Systemic autonomic responses and emotional changes elicited by stimulation in the VNO region suggest some chemosensitivity, even though the anatomical substrate is difficult to demonstrate and seems unlikely to be conventional VSNs.

“Systemic autonomic responses and emotional changes elicited by stimulation in this region suggest some chemosensitivity, even though the anatomical substrate is difficult to demonstrate and seems unlikely to be conventional VSNs.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The electrical and systemic responses recorded from the VNO region are not artifacts of electrode movement or leakage of stimuli to the olfactory area.