A skin-inspired organic digital mechanoreceptor
Open accessAbstract
Sensing the force digitally: Our skin provides us with a flexible waterproof barrier, but it also contains a sensor array that feels the world around us. This array provides feedback and helps us to avoid a hot object or increase the strength of our grip on an object that may be slipping away. Tee et al. describe an approach to simulate the mechanoreceptors of human skin, using pressure-sensitive foils and printed ring oscillators (see the Perspective by Anikeeva and Koppes). The sensor successfully converted pressure into a digital response in a pressure range comparable to that found in a human grip. Science , this issue p. 313 ; see also p. 274
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
The authors present DiTact, a skin-inspired artificial mechanoreceptor built from flexible printed organic circuits that converts pressure directly into digital frequency signals (0–200 Hz) with a sublinear response mimicking slow-adapting skin mechanoreceptors. The sensor output was used to optogenetically and electrically stimulate mouse cortical and hippocampal neurons in vitro, demonstrating a step toward neural-integrated touch feedback for prosthetic limbs.
Key findings
- The DiTact system transduces pressure into digital frequency signals directly, with an output frequency range of 0 to 200 Hz and a sublinear response to increasing force that mimics slow-adapting skin mechanoreceptors.
- In the on state (at 100 kPa), power dissipation of the prototype was 18.4 mW at 11 V and 2.0 mW at 6 V, which the authors state compares favorably to analog approaches.
- The engineered channelrhodopsin bC1C2(s/v) had larger photocurrents and faster off-kinetics than ChR2(HR) and ChETA(EA), and reliably evoked action potentials at frequencies up to 200 Hz for prolonged intervals; spike probability was 100% in bC1C2(s/v)-expressing neurons and decreased in ChETA(EA)-expressing neurons during prolonged stimulation (ChETA(EA), n = 16; bC1C2(s/v), n = 10).
- The DiTact output stimulated in vitro mouse somatosensory cortical neurons in accordance with applied pressure, with neurons firing in accordance with the stimulation pulse; the system was also coupled to an inorganic oscillator to electrically stimulate hippocampal neurons in a multielectrode array.
Methods
- The DiTact prototype comprises a three-inverter (three-stage) printed organic ring oscillator on a flexible plastic sheet, a piezoresistive pressure sensor made of a carbon nanotube composite dispersed in a polyurethane elastomer molded into pyramidal microstructures, and a voltage-divider configuration in which the sensor modulates the oscillator's supply voltage and thus its frequency.
- Optogenetic interfacing: the sensor output was conditioned via an edge detector to a 2-ms pulse triggering an LED (475 nm, 5 mW/mm²) to stimulate PV+ neurons in acute slices of mouse somatosensory cortex; whole-cell patch-clamp recordings compared ChETA(EA) and bC1C2(s/v) constructs, with error bars denoting SEM.
- Electrical interfacing: an inorganic oscillator was coupled to the pressure sensor and the resulting frequency signal was used to stimulate hippocampal neurons in a multielectrode array.
Limitations
- The paper states the system currently encodes static pressure stimuli only, and that implementing temporal adaptation to both static and nonstatic stimuli (e.g., increased firing rate for moving stimuli, decreased firing rate for constant stimuli) will be important to fully mimic biological mechanoreceptors.
- The paper notes that electrical stimulation is more applicable to conventional prosthetics, and that optogenetic stimulation was used as a reliable noncontact method to demonstrate feasibility of interfacing with biological neural circuits.
- The paper states the 11 V supply voltage was chosen to set the maximum frequency to 200 Hz, and that the supply voltage can be further reduced via reduction of the dielectric thickness (organic oscillators operating at 3 V have been demonstrated).
Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.
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Claims the paper makes
0 of 13 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged
- Findingnone given§ A skin-inspired organic digital mechanoreceptor · p. 2
The DiTact sensor's output frequency exhibits a sublinear response to increasing force stimuli.
“with a sublinear response to increasing force stimuli”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data§ SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS · p. 3
When the sensor and oscillator were in series in a voltage divider, the frequency of the oscillator increased with pressure.
“When the sensor and oscillator were in series in a voltage divider, the frequency of the oscillator increased with pressure (Fig. 2G).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data§ SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS · p. 4
bC1C2(s/v) was able to reliably evoke action potentials at frequencies up to 200 Hz for more prolonged intervals.
“bC1C2(s/v) was able to reliably evoke action potentials at frequencies up to 200 Hz for more prolonged intervals (Fig. 3, A and B)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data§ A skin-inspired organic digital mechanoreceptor · p. 2
The output of the DiTact sensors was used to stimulate optogenetically engineered mouse somatosensory neurons of mouse cortex in vitro, achieving stimulated pulses in accordance with pressure levels.
“The output of the sensors was further used to stimulate optogenetically engineered mouse somatosensory neurons of mouse cortex in vitro, achieving stimulated pulses in accordance with pressure levels.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data§ SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS · p. 3
The organic circuits emulate the response of slow-adapting tactile receptors by encoding static pressure stimuli into digital signals whose frequency varies with stimulation intensity.
“The organic circuits emulate the response of slow-adapting tactile receptors by encoding static pressure stimuli into digital signals whose frequency varies with stimulation intensity (Fig. 1A).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- Findingown data§ SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS · p. 4
ChETA activity was not well suited in cultured pyramidal neurons to mediate spikes for extended periods of time.
“we found that ChETA activity was not well suited in cultured pyramidal neurons to mediate spikes for extended periods of time (Fig. 3A, fig. S10, and table S1).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data§ SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS · p. 3
The oscillation frequency of the DiTact oscillator depends quadratically on the supply voltage for the voltage range used.
“The oscillation frequency depends quadratically on the supply voltage (Fig. 2A) for the voltage range used in this work.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data§ SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS · p. 5
The neurons fired in accordance with the stimulation pulse, which was generated at frequencies determined by the pressure applied to the DiTact system.
“The neurons fired in accordance with the stimulation pulse, which was generated at frequencies determined by the pressure applied to the DiTact system (Fig. 3E).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data§ A skin-inspired organic digital mechanoreceptor · p. 2
The output frequency of the DiTact sensor ranges between 0 and 200 Hz.
“The output frequency ranges between 0 and 200 hertz”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data§ A skin-inspired organic digital mechanoreceptor · p. 2
The sublinear response of the DiTact sensor mimics slow-adapting skin mechanoreceptors.
“that mimics slow-adapting skin mechanoreceptors”
- Also stated in: § SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS · p. 5 · plain
“Our DiTact sensors encode pressure stimulation magnitude with sublinear digital responses similar to human mechanoreceptors.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The typical frequency range of biological mechanoreceptors is 0–200 Hz.
- Also stated in: § SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS · p. 5 · plain
- Premisecitation§ A skin-inspired organic digital mechanoreceptor · p. 2
Human skin mechanoreceptors transduce mechanical strain into oscillating electrical action potentials (digital signals).
“Human skin relies on cutaneous receptors that output digital signals for tactile sensing in which the intensity of stimulation is converted to a series of voltage pulses.”
- Also stated in: § SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS · p. 3 · plain
“each tactile mechanoreceptor in the human skin is a highly sophisticated, low-power biological circuit capable of transducing mechanical strain to oscillating electrical action potentials ( 14 ).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [14] 14. E. P. Gardner, Touch (eLS/Wiley Online Library, 2001).
Not checked in the free run.
- Also stated in: § SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS · p. 3 · plain
- Interpretationreasoning§ SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS · p. 4
The optogenetic neural interface must be capable of stimulating neurons with a frequency up to 200 Hz for several seconds.
“Consequently, the optogenetic neural interface must be capable of stimulating neurons with a frequency up to 200 Hz for several seconds.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS · p. 3
Powering and obtaining readings of an enormously large density of sensors as found in human skin may not be energy-efficient using dc signal approaches.
“Furthermore, powering and obtaining readings of an enormously large density of sensors as found in human skin may not be energy-efficient using dc signal approaches.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Human skin contains an enormously large density of sensors.
- Interpretationreasoning§ SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS · p. 5
The compatibility of the DiTact sensor with optogenetic stimulation of somatosensory cortex interneurons and parvalbumin neurons, as well as electrical stimulation of hippocampal neurons, suggests that the system would be compatible with other fast-spiking neurons, including peripheral nerves.
“The compatibility of the DiTact sensor with optogenetic stimulation of somatosensory cortex interneurons (Fig. 3) and parvalbumin neurons (fig. S12B), as well as electrical stimulation of hippocampal neurons (fig. S13), suggests that the system would be compatible with other fast-spiking neurons, including peripheral nerves.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisenone given§ SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS · p. 4
Sustained high-frequency stimulation is difficult to achieve using conventional optogenetic channel proteins.
“However, sustained high-frequency stimulation is difficult to achieve using conventional optogenetic channel proteins.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data§ SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS · p. 5
The DiTact sensor's pressure-dependent frequency characteristics have a threshold and range similar to those of biological mechanoreceptors.
“The output of the DiTact system had pressure-dependent frequency characteristics with a threshold and range similar to those of biological mechanoreceptors (fig. S12).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The typical frequency range of biological mechanoreceptors is 0–200 Hz.
- May combine two claims. 4
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 11
May combine two claims.
Findingown data§ SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS · p. 4bC1C2(s/v) had larger photocurrents than ChR2(HR) and ChETA(EA), as well as fast off-kinetics.
“The resulting construct, termed bC1C2(s/v), had larger photocurrents than ChR2(HR) and ChETA(EA), as well as fast off-kinetics (fig. S11).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown data§ SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS · p. 3The DiTact prototype's power dissipation in the on state at 100 kPa is 18.4 mW at 11 V and 2.0 mW at 6 V.
“In the on state (at 100 kPa, with all voltage dropping across the oscillator), the power dissipation of the DiTact prototype was 18.4 m Wat 11 V and 2.0 m W at 6 V”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Premisecitation§ SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS · p. 3Kim and co-workers demonstrated silicon nanoribbon strain and pressure sensor arrays that output voltage signals and stretchable multielectrode arrays for nerve stimulation.
“Kim and co-workers recently demonstrated silicon nanoribbon strain and pressure sensor arrays that output voltage signals and stretchable multielectrode arrays for nerve stimulation ( 12 ).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [12] 12. J. Kim et al ., Nat. Commun. 5 , 5747 (2014).
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
Premisecitation§ SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS · p. 4Mutations of channelrhodopsin such as ChETA(EA) accelerate channel opening and closure.
“Mutations of channelrhodopsin such as ChR2-E123A [ChETA(EA)] accelerate channel opening and closure.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [23] 23. L. A. Gunaydin et al ., Nat. Neurosci. 13 , 387 - 392 (2010).
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites [24] 24. J. Mattis et al ., Nat. Methods 9 , 159 - 172 (2012).
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).
Interpretationreasoning§ SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS · p. 3To enable large-scale integration, it is advantageous for sensors to directly produce digital signals with relevant frequencies.
“To enable large-scale integration, it is advantageous for the sensors to directly produce digital signals with relevant frequencies.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Interpretationreasoning§ SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS · p. 5The DiTact system can be potentially integrated over large areas as electronic skins for conventional neural prosthetics or optogenetic-based prosthetic interfaces.
“This system can be potentially integrated over large areas as electronic skins for conventional neural prosthetics or optogenetic-based prosthetic interfaces.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
Interpretationnone given§ SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS · p. 5The digital nature of the output could be advantageous in high-density prosthetic sensor systems, using strategies similar to code division multiple access (CDMA) that allow for greater bandwidths with fewer interconnections.
“Furthermore, the digital nature of the output could be advantageous in high-density prosthetic sensor systems, using strategies similar to code division multiple access (CDMA) that allow for greater bandwidths with fewer interconnections.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Premisecitation§ SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS · p. 3Flexible and stretchable tactile sensors have achieved a high level of sophistication using both organic and inorganic electronic materials.
“Flexible and stretchable tactile sensors have achieved a high level of sophistication using both organic ( 7 -10 ) and inorganic electronic materials ( 11 -13 ).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 7 sources checked- cites [7] 7. S. C. B. Mannsfeld et al ., Nat. Mater. 9 , 859 -864 (2010).
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites [8] 8. G. Schwartz et al ., Nat. Commun. 4 , 1859 (2013).
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites [9] 9. M. Kaltenbrunner et al ., Nature 499 , 458 -463 (2013). source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [10] 10. T. Sekitani et al ., Science 326 , 1516 -1519 (2009). source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [11] 11. D.-H. Kim et al ., Science 333 , 838 -843 (2011). source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [12] 12. J. Kim et al ., Nat. Commun. 5 , 5747 (2014).
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites [13] 13. K. Takei et al ., Nat. Mater. 9 , 821 -826 (2010).
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.
Premisereasoning§ SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS · p. 3The transduction mechanism of biological mechanoreceptors is inherently power-efficient and robust to noise, allowing mechanical sensations to be transmitted over long distances.
“This transduction mechanism is inherently power-efficient and robust to noise, allowing for mechanical sensations to be transmitted over long distances, such as from extremities.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
Interpretationreasoning§ A skin-inspired organic digital mechanoreceptor · p. 2This work represents a step toward the design and use of large-area organic electronic skins with neural-integrated touch feedback for replacement limbs.
“This work represents a step toward the design and use of large-area organic electronic skins with neural-integrated touch feedback for replacement limbs.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
Premisecitation§ SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS · p. 3Previous reports on prosthetic skin systems have used a computer or microcontroller to convert sensors' analog signals into signals appropriate for stimulating neurons.
“Previous reports on prosthetic skin systems have used a computer or microcontroller to convert the sensors ' analog signals into signals that are appropriate for stimulating neurons ( 4 , 12 ).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [4] 4. S. Raspopovic et al ., Sci. Transl. Med. 6 , 222ra19 (2014).
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites [12] 12. J. Kim et al ., Nat. Commun. 5 , 5747 (2014).
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).
Interpretationreasoning§ A skin-inspired organic digital mechanoreceptor · p. 2Implementation of human mechanoreceptor-like sensing systems would be an important step toward highly functional prosthetics.
“Thus, the implementation of human mechanoreceptor-like sensing systems would be an important step toward highly functional prosthetics.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
Interpretationown data§ SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS · p. 3The DiTact prototype's power dissipation compares favorably to analog approaches.
“which compares favorably to analog approaches.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
The paper relies on this without support.
The typical frequency range of biological mechanoreceptors is 0–200 Hz.
“so as to match the typical frequency range of biological mechanoreceptors.”
“a range similar to that of slow-adapting mechanoreceptors”
The paper relies on this without support.
Human skin contains an enormously large density of sensors.
“an enormously large density of sensors as found in human skin”
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The significant transition from typical electronics to flexible electronics started with materials and mechanic and design strategies to match the epidermis.
“Significant transition from typical electronics to flexible electronics started with materials and mechanic and design strategies to match the epidermis.24,25”
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- Authors
- Tee, B. C.-K., Chortos, A., Berndt, A., Nguyen, A. K., Tom, A., McGuire, A., Lin, Z. C., Tien, K., Bae, W.-G., Wang, H., Mei, P., Chou, H.-H., Cui, B., Deisseroth, K., Ng, T. N., & Bao, Z.
- Affiliations
- Stanford University (US)
- Palo Alto Research Center (US)
- Corresponding author
- Tee, Benjamin C.-K.
- Chortos, Alex
- Berndt, Andre
- Bao, Zhenan
- ORCID
- Venue
- Science
- Published
- 2015-10-16
- Volume
- 350
- Issue
- 6258
- Pages
- 313-316
- ISSN
- 0036-8075 (ISSN-L)
- 1095-9203
- OpenAlex
- W2212410734
- Semantic Scholar
- 65016a70846a1725c2b73bf6841061e09f301e80
- Cited by
- 882
- References
- 32
- Citations by year
- 2026: 53 · 2025: 62 · 2024: 66 · 2023: 70 · 2022: 75 · 2021: 95 · 2020: 91 · 2019: 105 · 2018: 106 · 2017: 88 · 2016: 67 · 2015: 4
- FWCI
- 43.89
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Science (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Xerox Foundation
- gency for Science Technology and Research Singapore (A*STAR)
- National IT Industry Promotion Agency
- MSIP (Ministry of Science, ICT and Future Planning), Korea (NIPA-2014-H0201-14-1001)
- Samsung Electronics
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Biomedical Engineering › Advanced Sensor and Energy Harvesting Materials
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Tactile and Sensory Interactions
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neuroscience and Neural Engineering
- Keywords
- mechanoreceptors, pressure sensing, optogenetics, somatosensory neurons, neurostimulation, electronic skin, artificial limbs
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Cerebral Cortex, Transcutaneous Electric Nerve Stimulation, Hand, Humans, Mechanoreceptors, Pressure, Skin, Touch, Transistors, Electronic, Mice, Neural Prostheses, Optogenetics, In Vitro Techniques
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-09.
Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-09.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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