Centering Age Inequality: Developing a Sociology-of-Age Framework

May combine two claims.

Age discrimination cases are difficult to prove since the law permits unintentional age discrimination, and employers can readily cloak their actions in the seemingly age-neutral language of cost savings.

“These cases, however, are difficult to prove since the law permits unintentional age discrimination, and employers can readily cloak their actions in the seemingly age-neutral language of cost savings (Perron 2018, Roscigno et al. 2007).”

• cites Perron 2018 sourcePartly supported

  The section on age-discrimination protections says the Supreme Court made workplace age discrimination harder to prove than other types of discrimination. Our copy does not say the law permits unintentional age discrimination or that employers disguise their actions as cost savings. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Roscigno et al. 2007 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The construct of age is omnipresent but theoretically underdeveloped in mainstream sociology.

“The construct of age occupies a curious position in mainstream sociology: It is omnipresent but theoretically underdeveloped.”

• Also stated in: § INTRODUCTION · plain

  “It is omnipresentubiquitous in descriptions of study participants and lists of control variables-but it also is among the most overlooked and undertheorized of social constructs.”

• cites Laz 1998Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Pickard 2016 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Calasanti et al. 2006 sourcePartly supported

  The Age Relations section says age is a widely documented organizing principle, while scholars, including gerontologists, have scarcely theorized age relations. The paper supports the claim that age is important and under-theorized, but it does not specifically establish that the construct is omnipresent in mainstream sociology. (LLM, conf=0.82)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

An AARP survey of nearly 4,000 workers aged 45 and older revealed that 61% had either experienced or seen age discrimination, with the majority believing that it is common and that it begins when workers are in their fifties.

“Regarding the workplace, an AARP survey of nearly 4,000 workers aged 45 and older revealed that 61% had either experienced or seen age discrimination, with the majority believing that it is common and that it begins when workers are in their fifties (Perron 2018).”

• cites Perron 2018 sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

The field's dominant view of what it means to age successfully is ageist in its treatment of middle age as the standard and its failure to challenge the devaluation of later life stages.

“For example, the field's dominant view of what it means to age successfully is ageist in its treatment of middle age as the standard and its failure to challenge the devaluation of later life stages (e.g., Calasanti 2016, Dillaway & Byrnes 2009, Katz & Calasanti 2015).”

• cites Calasanti 2016 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Dillaway & Byrnes 2009 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Katz & Calasanti 2015 sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

In the health care system, ageism is prevalent and often discounted.

“In the health care system, ageism is also prevalent and often discounted.”

• cites Estes & Binney 1989 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Wyman et al. 2018 sourcePartly supported

  The Conclusions and Recommendations (§13.4; page unavailable) say there is ample evidence that age-based discrimination is common in health care and call ageism a powerful force. The chapter urges identification of ageist practices, but the passages do not establish that ageism itself is often discounted. (LLM, conf=0.82)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

Older adults are more likely to be treated in a patronizing manner and to have their concerns dismissed by health care providers, who may attribute them to the declines that are assumed to inevitably occur with age.

“Older adults are more likely to be treated in a patronizing manner and to have their concerns dismissed by health care providers, who may attribute them to the declines that are assumed to inevitably occur with age (Estes & Binney 1989, Wyman et al. 2018).”

• cites Estes & Binney 1989 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Wyman et al. 2018 sourcePartly supported

  Section 13.2.2 (page unavailable) reports patronizing communication with older patients and less involvement in medical decisions than with younger patients. It does not establish that providers dismiss patients’ concerns because they attribute them to inevitable age-related decline. Section 13.2.4 discusses regarding pain as a normal part of aging, but attributes that belief to older patients themselves. (LLM, conf=0.87)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

People who have experienced age discrimination tend to see themselves as older than they are, a belief associated with many negative health outcomes.

“People who have experienced age discrimination tend to see themselves as older than they are, a belief associated with many negative health outcomes, including worse mental health, lower exercise frequency, increased risk of hospitalization, decreased cognitive functioning, poorer functional health, and increased risk of mortality”

• cites Barrett & Toothman 2014 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Keyes & Westerhof 2012 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Stephan et al. 2013 sourcePartly supported

  The Results (p. 4) associate a younger subjective age with better memory and executive functioning, and the introduction (p. 2) reports links with well-being, physical functioning, health, and longevity. But the paper does not show that experiencing age discrimination makes people feel older; the Discussion (p. 6) instead describes feeling younger as a possible response to negative age stereotypes. It also does not address hospitalization. (LLM, conf=0.87)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Age inequality turns on three key dimensions: age as an institution, age as a performance, and age as an identity.

“The framework is used to organize sociologically relevant research that addresses three key dimensions of age on which age inequality turns: age as an institution, age as a performance, and age as an identity.”

May combine two claims.

Research applying the life course perspective has proliferated since its inception in the 1970s and has come to dominate the discipline's approach to age.

“Research applying the life course perspective has proliferated since its inception in the 1970s and has come to dominate the discipline's approach to age.”

• cites Barrett & Michael 2022 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Barrett et al. 2012 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The life course perspective focuses on the patterning of lives across several dimensions of time-historical, social, and lifetime-all of which are captured by age.

“This approach derives from the life course perspective, which focuses on the patterning of lives across several dimensions of time-historical, social, and lifetime-all of which are captured by age (Elder 1975, Elder et al. 2003).”

• cites Elder 1975 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Elder et al. 2003 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The common practice of giving consideration to age only as a control variable reveals little about the effect of age itself, which can index diverse constructs-developmental stage, physiological functioning, cohort membership, nearness to death, and risk of ageism, among others.

“This common practice of giving consideration to age only as a control variable reveals little about the effect of age itself, which can index diverse constructs-developmental stage, physiological functioning, cohort membership, nearness to death, and risk of ageism, among others.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The sociology of age centers age itself as the construct to investigate-one that emerges in social, political, and economic structures that vary across cultural and historical contexts.

“In contrast, the sociology of age centers age itself as the construct to investigate-one that emerges in social, political, and economic structures that vary across cultural and historical contexts.”

May combine two claims.

Age inequality operates overtly and covertly.

“Age inequality constrains opportunities, appears at individual and institutional levels, and operates overtly and covertly.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The study of age can imply a focus on those having more age-whom the culture devalues.

“Just as the study of race or gender is often erroneously viewed as referring to the people occupying minority positions in these hierarchies, who are more likely to be viewed as having a race or gender, the study of age can imply a focus on those having more age-whom the culture devalues.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Research on aging focuses on middle and later life, while research on the life course can place any period of life in its investigative scope.

“Research on aging focuses on middle and later life, while research on the life course can place any period of life in its investigative scope.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Age is a primary determinant of health.

“an especially low percentage considering that age is a primary determinant of health (Barrett & Michael 2022).”

• cites Barrett & Michael 2022 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The sociology of aging and the life course focuses on age as a process-with both aging and the life course viewed as multifaceted and socially embedded processes that unfold over time.

“The sociology of aging and the life course focuses on age as a process-with both aging and the life course viewed as multifaceted and socially embedded processes that unfold over time.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Inequality is a key axis on which several dimensions of age turn.

“identifies inequality as a key axis on which several dimensions of age turn”

• Also stated in: § INTRODUCTION · plain

  “It reflects a notion of age as a social factor that, much like gender, race, class, and other factors of central interest to sociology, is a key axis of inequality.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Conceptual development of age would yield general insights on social inequality and its underpinnings.

“As these parallels imply, conceptual development of age would yield general insights on social inequality and its underpinnings.”

May combine two claims.

Age inequality appears at individual and institutional levels.

“Age inequality constrains opportunities, appears at individual and institutional levels, and operates overtly and covertly.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Age is a social factor that, much like gender, race, class, and other factors of central interest to sociology, is a key axis of inequality.

“It reflects a notion of age as a social factor that, much like gender, race, class, and other factors of central interest to sociology, is a key axis of inequality.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The discipline's limited interest in age likely stems, at least in part, from the subject's connection with older adults.

“The discipline's limited interest in age likely stems, at least in part, from the subject's connection with older adults.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

These three dimensions are not the only dimensions of age; the life course perspective considers age as an indicator of cohort or generation or as an indicator of physical or cognitive developmental status.

“This is not to claim that these three dimensions are the only ones; the life course perspective, for example, considers age as an indicator of cohort or generation or as an indicator of physical or cognitive developmental status.”

May combine two claims.

The sociology of age remains underdeveloped and not yet fully integrated into the discipline.

“As a result, the sociology of age remains underdeveloped and not yet fully integrated into the discipline.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

An estimated one of every seven dollars spent on the eight most expensive health conditions affecting older adults can be attributed to ageism.

“Ageism's health effects are costly: An estimated one of every seven dollars spent on the eight most expensive health conditions affecting older adults can be attributed to ageism (Levy et al. 2020).”

• cites Levy et al. 2020Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Ageism is more socially acceptable than many other forms of prejudice and discrimination and often goes unnoticed.

“Ageism, however, is more socially acceptable than many other forms of prejudice and discrimination and often goes unnoticed.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Age inequality figures prominently in age studies and gerontology, including its mainstream and critical branches.

“Age inequality figures quite prominently in a couple of interdisciplinary fields: age studies and gerontology, including its mainstream and critical branches.”

• cites Gullette 1997Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Calasanti 2003Not matched

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• cites Estes 2014Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Age categories are socially created and contested, largely revolving around a distinction between the old and not old.

“In particular, age categories are seen as socially created and contested-and as largely revolving around a distinction between the old and not old.”

• cites Calasanti 2003Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Age as an axis of inequality turns on three dimensions: age as institution, age as performance, and age as identity.

“The framework develops three dimensions of age on which age as an axis of inequality turns: (a) age as institution, (b) age as performance, and (c) age as identity.”

May combine two claims.

All age categorizations sort people into positions in a hierarchy that advantages some groups over others and thus provides a relatively durable structure that generates age inequality.

“Regardless of the criteria, however, all age categorizations share a crucial characteristic, one that is recognized by age relations, age studies, and critical gerontology: They sort people into positions in a hierarchy that advantages some groups over others and thus provides a relatively durable structure that generates age inequality.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Ageism is reflected in the culture's dominant narrative of aging, which constructs it as an inevitable series of declines that begin even before midlife.

“She contends that ageism is reflected in the culture's dominant narrative of aging, which constructs it as an inevitable series of declines that begin even before midlife.”

• cites Gullette 1997Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Gullette 2004 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Gullette 2011 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Much of the research in critical gerontology is conducted by sociologists.

“Reflecting its view of age inequality as structurally and politically based, much of the research in critical gerontology is conducted by sociologists (e.g., Calasanti, Estes, Katz, Phillipson, Twigg, Wellin).”

• cites CalasantiNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites EstesNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites KatzNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Age positions confer varying levels of power and privilege.

“Age positions refer to age-based categories that confer varying levels of power and privilege, an insight that is central to age relations, age studies, and critical gerontology.”

May combine two claims.

Age ideologies suffuse the social world, manifesting in policies, institutions, and everyday interactions, although they are rarely noticed.

“Age ideologies suffuse the social world, manifesting in policies, institutions, and everyday interactions, although they are rarely noticed.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Age inequality is featured in critical gerontology, an area that developed in the 1980s in reaction to positivism's dominance and its increasing tilt toward a biomedical view of aging.

“Age inequality also is featured in critical gerontology, an area that developed in the 1980s in reaction both to positivism's dominance in the field and to its increasing tilt toward a biomedical view of aging (e.g., Andrews 1999, Cole et al. 1993, Estes 1979, Laws 1995, Phillipson 1998, Wellin 2018).”

• cites Andrews 1999 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Cole et al. 1993Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Estes 1979Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

The sociology-of-age framework integrates insights from age relations, life course sociology, age studies, and gerontology, and emphasizes inequalities.

“In sum, each of these fields of scholarship-age relations, life course sociology, age studies, and gerontology, including its critical and mainstream areas-contributes to a greater or lesser extent to the sociology-of-age framework and, in particular, to its inequalities emphasis.”

May combine two claims.

Modifying appearance is more common among women, who face greater social and financial penalties of appearing old than do men.

“Many involve modifying appearance through everyday activities or surgical intervention-both of which are more common among women, who face greater social and financial penalties of appearing old than do men”

• cites Furman 1997Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Hurd Clarke 2017Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Padavic & Reskin 2002 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Age norms constrain individuals' actions solely on the basis of assumptions about age, thus reinforcing age inequality.

“Although their links to age inequality receive limited attention in these or similar studies, age norms-whether referring to major transitions or everyday behaviors-are mechanisms that constrain individuals' actions solely on the basis of assumptions about age, thus reinforcing age inequality.”

May combine two claims.

Age performances give meaning to our own and others' ages, while also conveying information about the salience of age as a dimension on which social distinctions are made.

“Age performances, many of which go undetected, give meaning to our own and others' ages, while also conveying information about the salience of age as a dimension on which social distinctions are made”

May combine two claims.

Age performances are core components of age as a system of inequality that allocates resources and that influences self-regard.

“These performances are core components of age as a system of inequality that allocates resources and that influences self-regard, as performances are the interactive mechanisms through which the system is reinforced or challenged.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

People in the United States hold more youthful identities and greater health benefits accrue from them, compared with those in Germany.

“The authors reported that people in the United States hold more youthful identities and greater health benefits accrue from them, compared with those in Germany.”

• cites Westerhof & Barrett 2005 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Westerhof et al. 2003 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The liberal welfare state regime in the United States places more responsibility on individuals to plan for their later years.

“They argued that the liberal welfare state regime in the United States places more responsibility on individuals to plan for their later years-perhaps increasing the pressure to exaggerate one's youthfulness.”

• cites Westerhof & Barrett 2005 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Westerhof et al. 2003 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Studies often reflect mainstream gerontology's emphasis on an individual level of analysis, an orientation that does not lend itself to examinations of age as an aspect of identity embedded in the social world.

“Moreover, studies often reflect mainstream gerontology's emphasis on an individual level of analysis, an orientation that does not lend itself to examinations of age as an aspect of identity that is embedded, created, and contested in the social world.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The current tendency towards 'agelessness' is itself a form of ageism, depriving older people of their age as a hard-earned resource.

“the current tendency towards 'agelessness' is itself a form of ageism, depriving the old of one of their most hard-earned resources: their age.”

• cites Andrews 1999 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The framework specifies key dimensions of age underlying age inequality: age as an institution, as a performance, and as an identity.

“Many theoretically intriguing questions are raised by the framework's specification of key dimensions of age underlying age inequality-namely age as an institution, as a performance, and as an identity.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Age is a pervasive and highly consequential dimension of inequality.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Color blindness and agelessness both center on the idea that inequality can be eradicated by refusing to acknowledge the existence of social categories, and both are undermined by their denials of inequality and individuals' experiences of it.

“Both approaches center on the seductively simple idea that inequality can be eradicated by refusing to acknowledge the existence of social categories, but both are undermined by their denials of inequality and individuals' experiences of it.”

• cites Andrews 1999 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Bonilla-Silva 2018Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Age is a pervasive and highly consequential dimension of inequality.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The age relations framework discusses how age identity shapes age-based power relations through its intersection with other identities like gender.

“Examples include the age relations framework's discussion of how age identity shapes age-based power relations through its intersection with other identities like gender (Calasanti 2003)”

• cites Calasanti 2003Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S3 (load-bearing).

Older adults' performance of age and transgender persons' performance of gender are similar in that both groups describe efforts to align others' views of them with their own.

“a research direction suggested by the groups' similar descriptions of efforts to align others' views of them with their own (e.g., see Hurd Clarke 2010 on age andSchrock et al. 2005 on transgenderism).”

• cites Hurd Clarke 2010 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Schrock et al. 2005 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Age is a pervasive and highly consequential dimension of inequality.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Less is known about age performances that resist dominant age ideologies and their effect on redefining age as an institution or an identity than about age performances that reify dominant age ideologies.

“Although much is known about age performances, particularly those that reify dominant age ideologies, less is known about performances that resist them and their effect on redefining age as an institution or an identity.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Age is a pervasive and highly consequential dimension of inequality.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

The interplay of age positions, age ideologies, and age norms and its relevance to age inequality have received limited attention in prior research.

“Although they have been examined in prior research, their interplay and its relevance to age inequality have received limited attention.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Age is a pervasive and highly consequential dimension of inequality.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Scholarship emphasizes the ageism underlying the cultural celebration of youthful identities.

“as well as scholarship emphasizing the ageism underlying the cultural celebration of youthful identities (e.g., Andrews 1999, Biggs 1997, Gullette 2004).”

• cites Andrews 1999 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Biggs 1997 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Gullette 2004 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The sociology-of-age framework accomplishes the goal of taking stock of current understandings of dimensions of age that underpin age inequality by organizing age relations, life course sociology, age studies, and gerontology, including its mainstream and critical branches.

“The sociology-of-age framework I have outlined accomplishes this goal by organizing relevant areas of scholarship typically examined in isolation-namely age relations, life course sociology, age studies, and gerontology, including its mainstream and critical branches.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Age is a pervasive and highly consequential dimension of inequality.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Age as an institution reveals the centrality of age positions, age ideologies, and age norms in the reproduction of age inequality.

“The development of age as an institution reveals the centrality of some of its key components-age positions, age ideologies, and age norms-in the reproduction of age inequality.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Age is a pervasive and highly consequential dimension of inequality.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Age as a performance draws attention to age inequality as a continually recreated product of interactions that give meaning to age.

“Other directions for research are suggested by age as a performance, which draws attention to age inequality as a continually recreated product of interactions that give meaning to age.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Age is a pervasive and highly consequential dimension of inequality.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

According to the prevailing script, people are supposed to internalize decline as their dominant private age identity even if they also make progress.

“According to the prevailing script, even if we also make progress, we are supposed to internalize decline as our dominant private age identity.”

• cites Gullette 2004 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source