Electrical stimulation of visual cortex: relevance for the development of visual cortical prosthetics
Open accessAbstract
Electrical stimulation of the cerebral cortex is a powerful tool for exploring cortical function. Stimulation of early visual cortical areas is easily detected by subjects and produces simple visual percepts known as phosphenes. A device implanted in visual cortex that generates patterns of phosphenes could be used as a substitute for natural vision in blind patients. We review the possibilities and limitations of such a device, termed a visual cortical prosthetic. Currently, we can predict the location and size of phosphenes produced by stimulation of single electrodes. A functional prosthetic, however, must produce spatial temporal patterns of activity that will result in the perception of complex visual objects. Although stimulation of later visual cortical areas alone usually does not lead to a visual percept, it can alter visual perception and the performance of visual behaviors, and training subjects to use signals injected into these areas may be possible.
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Our simulator is the first to incorporate empirical models of current spread in cortical tissue to simulate the effects of stimulation current on phosphene size.
“However, our simulator is the first to incorporate empirical models of the current spread in cortical tissue (Tehovnik and Slocum, 2007; Winawer and Parvizi, 2016; Bosking et al., 2017) to simulate the effects of stimulation current on the phosphene size.”
From Towards biologically plausible phosphene simulation for the differentiable optimization of visual cortical prostheses (2024) · cites this paper as Bosking et al., 2017
In 'Electrical Stimulation in Epilepsy Patients' (page unavailable), the paper describes a model predicting phosphene size from stimulation-current magnitude and electrode eccentricity. 'Measuring Spread of Activity and Cortical Integration with Electrical Stimulation' (page unavailable) separately discusses empirical measurements and an equation for current spread. Our copy does not establish that the phosphene-size model incorporates an empirical model of current spread; the citing authors' claim that their simulator is the first to do so is their own, not a claim attributed to this source. (LLM, conf=0.83)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe size of the phosphene increases with its eccentricity due to cortical magnification.
“Due to the cortical magnification (the foveal information is represented by a relatively large surface area in the visual cortex as a result of variation of retinal RF size) the size of the phosphene increases with its eccentricity (Winawer and Parvizi, 2016; Bosking et al., 2017).”
From Towards biologically plausible phosphene simulation for the differentiable optimization of visual cortical prostheses (2024) · cites this paper as Bosking et al., 2017
Some recent studies developed descriptive models of the phosphene size or brightness as a function of the stimulation parameters.
“Some recent studies developed descriptive models of the phosphene size or brightness as a function of the stimulation parameters (Winawer and Parvizi, 2016; Bosking et al., 2017).”
From Towards biologically plausible phosphene simulation for the differentiable optimization of visual cortical prostheses (2024) · cites this paper as Bosking et al., 2017
More elongated and more complex phosphene shapes have been reported.
“However, more elongated shapes and more complex shapes have been reported as well (Bosking et al., 2017; Winawer and Parvizi, 2016; Bak et al., 1990).”
From Towards biologically plausible phosphene simulation for the differentiable optimization of visual cortical prostheses (2024) · cites this paper as Bosking et al., 2017
The sections on stimulation in epilepsy patients and on phosphene characteristics in nonhuman primates discuss phosphene size, color, and contrast, but do not report elongated or complex phosphene shapes. A reference to a more complex visual percept is hypothetical, not a report of such a shape. Searches for elongated shapes and complex phosphene forms found no supporting passage in our copy; page numbers were unavailable. (LLM, conf=0.72)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe model replicates data from Bosking et al. examining phosphene size as a function of eccentricity for 93 surface electrodes implanted in 13 patients.
“Our model also replicates data from Bosking et al.71 who examined phosphene size as a function of eccentricity for 93 surface electrodes (0.25 mm radius) implanted in 13 patients.”
From A virtual patient simulation modeling the neural and perceptual effects of human visual cortical stimulation, from pulse trains to percepts (2024) · cites this paper as [71]
A model-driven approach is likely to be useful in determining which experiments will gain the most useful insights.
“Given the difficulty of collecting behavioral cortical data71, a model driven approach is likely to be useful in determining which experiments will gain the most useful insights.”
From A virtual patient simulation modeling the neural and perceptual effects of human visual cortical stimulation, from pulse trains to percepts (2024) · cites this paper as [71]
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Microstimulation of visual cortex to restore vision
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Electrocorticography links human temporoparietal junction to visual perception
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“Reproduced with permission from Beauchamp et al. (2012).”
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Microstimulation of V1 delays the execution of visually guided saccades
Tehovnik, E. J., Slocum, W. M., & Schiller, P. H. (2004) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1111/j.1460-9568.2004.03480.x · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Intracortical Visual Prosthesis Research - Approach and Progress
Troyk, P. R., Bradley, D., Bak, M., Cogan, S. F., Erickson, R. K., Hu, Z., Kufta, C. V., McCreery, D. B., Schmidt, E. J., Sung, S., et al. (2005) · Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC) · doi:10.1109/iembs.2005.1616216 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Visual motion perception from stimulation of the human medial parieto-occipital cortex
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Optical imaging of cortical networks via intracortical microstimulation
Brock, A. A., Friedman, R. M., Fan, R. H., & Roe, A. W. (2013) · Journal of Neurophysiology · doi:10.1152/jn.00879.2012 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
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Properties of Cortical Electrical Phosphenes
Rushton, D. N., & Brindley, G. S. (1978) · Springer series in optical sciences/SPringer series in optical sciences · doi:10.1007/978-3-540-35397-3_52 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Restoration of vision using wireless cortical implants: The Monash Vision Group project
Lowery, A. J., Rosenfeld, J. V., Lewis, P., Browne, D. C., Mohan, A., Brunton, E., Yan, E. B., Maller, J. J., Mann, C., Rajan, R., et al. (2015) · Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC) · doi:10.1109/embc.2015.7318543 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Electrical induction of vision
Tehovnik, E. J., & Slocum, W. M. (2013) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.03.012 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Rangarajan, V., & Parvizi, J. (2015) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2015.08.003 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
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Transient Inability to Distinguish Between Faces: Electrophysiologic Studies
Mundel, T., MILTON, J. G., Dimitrov, A. G., Wilson, H. W., Pelizzari, C., Uftring, S. J., Torres, I. J., Erickson, R. K., Spire, J., & Towle, V. L. (2003) · Journal of Clinical Neurophysiology · doi:10.1097/00004691-200304000-00003 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Chronic in-vivo testing of a 16-channel implantable wireless neural stimulator
Bredeson, S. D., Kanneganti, A., Deku, F., Cogan, S. F., Romero‐Ortega, M. I., & Troyk, P. R. (2015) · Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC) · doi:10.1109/embc.2015.7318537 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Direction‐specific motion blindness induced by focal stimulation of human extrastriate cortex
Blanke, O., Landis, T., Safran, A. B., & Seeck, M. (2002) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1046/j.1460-9568.2002.02038.x · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Becker, H. G. T., Haarmeier, T., Tatagiba, M., & Gharabaghi, A. (2013) · The Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.0556-13.2013 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Illusions of Visual Motion Elicited by Electrical Stimulation of Human MT Complex
Rauschecker, A. M., Dastjerdi, M., Weiner, K. S., Witthoft, N., Chen, J., Selimbeyoglu, A., & Parvizi, J. (2011) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0021798 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
What Delay Fields Tell Us About Striate Cortex
Tehovnik, E. J., & Slocum, W. M. (2007) · Journal of Neurophysiology · doi:10.1152/jn.00285.2007 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Tehovnik, E. J., Slocum, W. M., & Schiller, P. H. (2005) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1111/j.1460-9568.2005.04454.x · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Microstimulation of V1 delays visually guided saccades: a parametric evaluation of delay fields
Tehovnik, E. J., & Slocum, W. M. (2006) · Experimental Brain Research · doi:10.1007/s00221-006-0625-1 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
The Neuronal Basis of Motion Perception
Newsome, W. T., & Salzman, C. D. (2007) · Novartis Foundation symposium · doi:10.1002/9780470514412.ch11 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
A Predominantly Visual Subdivision of The Right Temporo-Parietal Junction (vTPJ)
Horiguchi, H., Wandell, B. A., & Winawer, J. A. (2014) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhu226 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
A Strong Constraint to the Joint Processing of Pairs of Cortical Signals
Ghose, K., & Maunsell, J. H. R. (2012) · The Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.2186-12.2012 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
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Shape perception via a high-channel-count neuroprosthesis in monkey visual cortex
Chen, X., Wang, F., Fernandez, E., & Roelfsema, P. R. (2020) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.abd7435 · Cited by 250 · see citing works
Dynamic Stimulation of Visual Cortex Produces Form Vision in Sighted and Blind Humans
Beauchamp, M. S., Oswalt, D., Sun, P., Foster, B. L., Magnotti, J. F., Niketeghad, S., Pouratian, N., Bosking, W. H., & Yoshor, D. (2020) · Cell · doi:10.1016/j.cell.2020.04.033 · Cited by 257 · see citing works
“For 50 years, attempts have been made to restore vision to blind participants with electrical stimulation of the intact visual cerebral cortex (Bosking et al., 2017a; Lewis et al., 2015, 2016; Najarpour Foroushani et al., 2018; Normann et al., 2009).”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citationNeuroprotective strategies for retinal disease
Pardue, M. T., & Allen, R. S. (2018) · Progress in Retinal and Eye Research · doi:10.1016/j.preteyeres.2018.02.002 · Cited by 237 · see citing works
“For vision, two types of neurostimulation are being used: prosthetics to activate visual circuits by stimulating retinal neurons directly or by stimulating the visual cortex, thereby restoring visual function (Bosking et al., 2017; Cheng et al., 2017), and low level electrical stimulation M.”
Virtual Reality for Neurorehabilitation and Cognitive Enhancement
Георгиев, Д., Georgieva, I., Gong, Z., Nanjappan, V., & Georgiev, G. V. (2021) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci11020221 · Cited by 213 · see citing works
Bioelectronics for electrical stimulation: materials, devices and biomedical applications
Huang, Y., Yao, K., Zhang, Q., Huang, X., Chen, Z., Zhou, Y., & Yu, X. (2024) · Chemical Society Reviews · doi:10.1039/d4cs00413b · Cited by 166 · see citing works
Brain Machine Interfaces for Vision Restoration: The Current State of Cortical Visual Prosthetics
Niketeghad, S., & Pouratian, N. (2018) · Neurotherapeutics · doi:10.1007/s13311-018-0660-1 · Cited by 128 · see citing works
“Epilepsy patients with electrodes implanted in the occipital lobe provide a valuable opportunity to study the stimulation effects of visual cortex [55].”
BackgroundMind Reading and Writing: The Future of Neurotechnology
Roelfsema, P. R., Denys, D., & Klink, P. C. (2018) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2018.04.001 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
“For these patients, researchers have had the longstanding dream to directly impose activity patterns onto the visual cortex with electrical stimulation [48 – 52].”
Bioelectronic medicine: Preclinical insights and clinical advances
Pavlov, V. A., & Tracey, K. J. (2022) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2022.09.003 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
Gene Therapy in Inherited Retinal Diseases: An Update on Current State of the Art
Amato, A., Arrigo, A., Aragona, E., Manitto, M. P., Saladino, A., Bandello, F. M., & Parodi, M. B. (2021) · Frontiers in Medicine · doi:10.3389/fmed.2021.750586 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
“dehydrogenase 1 Guanine synthesis ∼55 (5)”
BackgroundSabel, B. A., Flammer, J., & Merabet, L. B. (2018) · Restorative Neurology and Neuroscience · doi:10.3233/rnn-180880 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
“But new technological advancements such as electrode design and image processing have generated renewed interest in this approach (Bosking et al., 2017; Najarpour Foroushani et al., 2018) and clinical trials are in progress (https://clinicaltrials.”
MethodEnd-to-end optimization of prosthetic vision
de Ruyter van Steveninck, J., Güçlü, U., van Wezel, R., & van Gerven, M. (2022) · Journal of Vision · doi:10.1167/jov.22.2.20 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Brain-Machine Interfaces to Assist the Blind
Ptito, M., Bleau, M., Djerourou, I., Paré, S., Schneider, F. C., & Chebat, D.-R. (2021) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2021.638887 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
“A major limitation of this approach is that retinal neurons activation affects the activation/inhibition balance that influences the signal propagation to higher order cortical areas (Bosking et al., 2017).”
BackgroundOswalt, D. N., Bosking, W. H., Sun, P., Sheth, S. A., Niketeghad, S., Salas, M. A., Patel, U. K., Greenberg, R. J., Dorn, J. D., Pouratian, N., et al. (2021) · Brain stimulation · doi:10.1016/j.brs.2021.08.024 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Self-citationBiohybrid neural interfaces: improving the biological integration of neural implants
Boulingre, M., Lara, R. P., & Green, R. A. (2023) · Chemical Communications · doi:10.1039/d3cc05006h · Cited by 39 · see citing works
van der Grinten, M., de Ruyter van Steveninck, J., Lozano, A., Pijnacker, L., Rueckauer, B., Roelfsema, P., van Gerven, M., van Wezel, R., Güçlü, U., & Güçlütürk, Y. (2024) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.85812 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“Other studies that performed V1 stimulation in sighted subjects ( Winawer and Parvizi, 2016 ; Bosking et al., 2017 ) and non-human primates ( Schiller et al., 2011 ; Chen et al., 2020 ) have shown similar success.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialThe language of the brain: real-world neural population codes
Pruszynski, J. A., & Zylberberg, J. (2019) · Current Opinion in Neurobiology · doi:10.1016/j.conb.2019.06.005 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
“For example, with sufficient information about the visual neural code images could be translated into the appropriate patterns of visual cortical neural activity, which could then be “written into” the visual cortex via high-density electrode arrays or optical methods, thereby restoring sight to blind people [62].”
BackgroundIdrees, S., Manookin, M. B., Rieke, F. M., Field, G. D., & Zylberberg, J. (2024) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-024-50114-5 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
“Beyond neuroscience, these models could also pave the way for medical interventions, such as prosthetic devices that restore sight to the blind 50 .”
Quantum information theoretic approach to the mind–brain problem
Georgiev, D. D. (2020) · Progress in Biophysics and Molecular Biology · doi:10.1016/j.pbiomolbio.2020.08.002 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Percepts evoked by multi-electrode stimulation of human visual cortex
Bosking, W. H., Oswalt, D. N., Foster, B. L., Sun, P., Beauchamp, M. S., & Yoshor, D. (2022) · Brain stimulation · doi:10.1016/j.brs.2022.08.007 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Self-citationLiu, X., Chen, P., Ding, X., Liu, A., Li, P., Sun, C., & Guan, H. (2022) · Annals of Translational Medicine · doi:10.21037/atm-22-2858 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“For several centuries, scientists have sought to restore vision to blind persons by activating the visual cortex, bypassing faulty eyes, and delivering information straight to higher visual centers (57).”
BackgroundFlexible Polymer Electrodes for Stable Prosthetic Visual Perception in Mice
Orlemann, C., Boehler, C., Kooijmans, R. N., Li, B., Asplund, M., & Roelfsema, P. R. (2024) · Advanced Healthcare Materials · doi:10.1002/adhm.202304169 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Masuda, Y., Takemura, H., Terao, M., Miyazaki, A., Ogawa, S., Horiguchi, H., Nakadomari, S., Matsumoto, K., Nakano, T., Wandell, B. A., et al. (2020) · Current Biology · doi:10.1016/j.cub.2020.10.034 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Kramer, D. R., Lee, M. B., Barbaro, M. F., Gogia, A. S., Peng, T. D., Liu, C. Y., Kellis, S., & Lee, B. (2020) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2552/ab7c8e · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Provansal, M., Labernède, G., Joffrois, C., Rizkallah, A., Goulet, R., Valet, M., Deschamps, W., Ferrari, U., Chaffiol, A., Dalkara, D., et al. (2021) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-021-91972-z · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Fine, I., & Boynton, G. M. (2024) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-024-65337-1 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“Our model captures the phenomenon whereby phosphene size increases with eccentricity (note the large change of scale across panels).”
BackgroundDoes brain activity cause consciousness? A thought experiment
Gidon, A., Aru, J., & Larkum, M. E. (2022) · PLoS Biology · doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.3001651 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“of an electrode array in their visual cortex [91].”
BackgroundFocal Electrical Stimulation of Cortical Functional Networks
Hu, J. M., Qian, M. Z., Tanigawa, H., Song, X. M., & Roe, A. W. (2020) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhaa136 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Toward Closed-Loop Electrical Stimulation of Neuronal Systems: A Review
Tanskanen, J. M. A., Ahtiainen, A., & Hyttinen, J. (2020) · Bioelectricity · doi:10.1089/bioe.2020.0028 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Bioinspired and biointegrated vision for artificial sight convergence
Yang, Y., Wang, Y., Zhu, C., Xie, Z., Qin, Z., Wang, Z., & Chai, Y. (2025) · Nature Reviews Bioengineering · doi:10.1038/s44222-025-00324-3 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“For example, the intracortical visual prosthesis consists of a floating microelectrode array with 16 microelectrodes of differing lengths 125 .”
Perceptography unveils the causal contribution of inferior temporal cortex to visual perception
Shahbazi, A., Ma, T., Pernuš, M., Scheirer, W. J., & Afraz, A. (2024) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-024-47356-8 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“However, it is challenging to restore a rich and complex visual experience only by shapeless phosphene elements 40,41 .”
Adaptive Interfacial Materials and Implants for Visual Restoration
Zhu, X., Wang, F., Zhao, Q., & Du, X. (2024) · Advanced Functional Materials · doi:10.1002/adfm.202314575 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Sharif, N. A. (2022) · Journal of Ocular Pharmacology and Therapeutics · doi:10.1089/jop.2022.0046 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Writing to the Mind’s Eye of the Blind
Roelfsema, P. R. (2020) · Cell · doi:10.1016/j.cell.2020.03.014 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“Scientists have long dreamed of restoring vision in blind individuals by stimulating the visual cortex, bypassing malfunctioning eyes to directly deliver information to higher visual centers (Bosking et al., 2017).”
Sequence of visual cortex stimulation affects phosphene brightness in blind subjects
Salas, M. A., Bell, J. S., Niketeghad, S., Oswalt, D. N., Bosking, W. H., Patel, U. K., Dorn, J. D., Yoshor, D., Greenberg, R. J., Bari, A., et al. (2022) · Brain stimulation · doi:10.1016/j.brs.2022.03.008 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Self-citationA novel interface for cortical columnar neuromodulation with multipoint infrared neural stimulation
Tian, F., Zhang, Y., Schriver, K. E., Hu, J. M., & Roe, A. W. (2024) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-024-50375-0 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“Here, we have combined a linear arrangement of stimulation points to ongoing visual-oriented gratings, demonstrating an enhancement when the stimulation effect is matched to the orientation of the visual stimulus and a relative suppression when not matched.”
Central nervous system microstimulation: Towards selective micro-neuromodulation
Urdaneta, M. E., Koivuniemi, A. S., & Otto, K. J. (2017) · Current Opinion in Biomedical Engineering · doi:10.1016/j.cobme.2017.09.012 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Electrical Microstimulation of Visual Cerebral Cortex Elevates Psychophysical Detection Thresholds
Cone, J. J., Ni, A. M., Ghose, K., & Maunsell, J. H. R. (2018) · eneuro · doi:10.1523/eneuro.0311-18.2018 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“2018 eNeuro.org evoke the sensation of a small spot of light in a corresponding retinotopic location (a phosphene; Brindley and Lewin, 1968; Dobelle and Mladejovsky, 1974; Schmidt et al., 1996; Lewis et al., 2016; Bosking et al., 2017).”
BackgroundRules governing perception of multiple phosphenes by human observers
Bosking, W., Foster, B., Sun, P., Beauchamp, M., & Yoshor, D. (2018) · doi:10.1101/302547 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“The size of the activated cortex was predicted according to the eccentricity of the electrode in the map of visual space, and the current that was used for stimulation (Bosking et al, 2017).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialSelf-citationPostmortem investigation of a human cortical visual prosthesis that was implanted for 36 years
Towle, V. L., Pytel, P., Lane, F., Plass, J., Frim, D. M., & Troyk, P. R. (2020) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2552/ab9d11 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Ortiz-Rios, M., Agayby, B., Balezeau, F., Haag, M., Rima, S., Cadena-Valencia, J., & Schmid, M. C. (2023) · Current Research in Neurobiology · doi:10.1016/j.crneur.2023.100087 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“Its high accessibility for implants combined with a retinotopic organisation that supports high-resolution vision are important reasons why V1 is regularly made the target for the development of prosthetic methods aimed at restoring visual function lost due to retinal disease (Beauchamp et al., 2020; Bosking et al., 2…”
BackgroundNeural co-processors for restoring brain function: results from a cortical model of grasping
Bryan, M. J., Jiang, L. P., & Rao, R. P. N. (2023) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2552/accaa9 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“While open loop stimulation techniques have yielded clinically useful results, results in many domains have been mixed, such as in visual prostheses [24], and in invoking somatosensory feedback [13].”
BackgroundCell-cell interaction in the pathogenesis of inherited retinal diseases
Du, X., Butler, A. G., & Chen, H. Y. (2024) · Frontiers in Cell and Developmental Biology · doi:10.3389/fcell.2024.1332944 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“…with little or no photoreceptors viable in the retina, we direct our readers to other excellent reviews discussing cell replacement therapy, retinal prosthetics, and direct brain stimulation (Yue et al., 2016; Bosking et al., 2017; Uyama et al., 2021; Chen et al., 2023b; Chew and Iannaccone, 2023).”
BackgroundInjecting Information into the Mammalian Cortex: Progress, Challenges, and Promise
Mazurek, K. A., & Schieber, M. H. (2020) · The Neuroscientist · doi:10.1177/1073858420936253 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Brain Co-processors: Using AI to Restore and Augment Brain Function
Rao, R. P. N. (2021) · Handbook of Neuroengineering · doi:10.1007/978-981-15-2848-4_32-1 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Optogenetic activation of visual thalamus generates artificial visual percepts
Wang, J., Azimi, H., Zhao, Y., Kaeser, M., Sánchez, P. V., Vázquez‐Guardado, A., Rogers, J. A., Harvey, M., & Rainer, G. (2023) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.90431 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Longitudinal stability of individual brain plasticity patterns in blindness
Amaral, L., Thomas, P., Amedi, A., & Striem-Amit, E. (2024) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2320251121 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Grani, F., Soto‐Sánchez, C., Doblado, A. R., López-Peco, R., González-López, P., & Fernández, E. (2025) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.adv8846 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Raising the stakes for cortical visual prostheses
Beauchamp, M. S., Bosking, W. H., Oswalt, D. N., & Yoshor, D. (2021) · Journal of Clinical Investigation · doi:10.1172/jci154983 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Self-citationRocca, A., Lehner, C., Wekesa, E., Luna, E., Fernández-Cornejo, V., Abarca-Olivas, J., Soto‐Sánchez, C., Fernández-Jover, E., & González-López, P. (2023) · Journal of neurosurgery · doi:10.3171/2023.8.jns23772 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Muramatsu, S., Toda, M., Nishikawa, J., & Tateno, T. (2019) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2019.146312 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Ortiz-Rios, M., Agayby, B., Balezeau, F., Haag, M., Rima, S., & Schmid, M. C. (2021) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2021.06.01.446505 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
A roadmap to a columnar visual cortical prosthetic
Roe, A. W., Chen, G., Xu, A. G., & Hu, J. (2020) · Current Opinion in Physiology · doi:10.1016/j.cophys.2020.06.009 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
End-to-end optimization of prosthetic vision
de Ruyter van Steveninck, J., Güçlü, U., van Wezel, R., & van Gerven, M. (2020) · doi:10.1101/2020.12.19.423601 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
van der Grinten, M., de Ruyter van Steveninck, J., Lozano, A., Pijnacker, L., Rückauer, B., Roelfsema, P., van Gerven, M., van Wezel, R., Güçlü, U., & Güçlütürk, Y. (2022) · doi:10.1101/2022.12.23.521749 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Hong, Y., Ryun, S., & Chung, C. K. (2024) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2024.1428256 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“Electrical stimulation of the visual cortex induces “phosphenes,” which are perceptions of small spots of light (Dobelle, 2000; Winawer and Parvizi, 2016; Bosking et al., 2017).”
BackgroundStimulating the brain to restore vision
Beauchamp, M. S., & Yoshor, D. (2020) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.abf3684 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Self-citationBrain Co-processors: Using AI to Restore and Augment Brain Function
Rao, R. P. N. (2023) · Handbook of Neuroengineering · doi:10.1007/978-981-16-5540-1_32 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Jonas, J., & Rossion, B. (2023) · Studies in neuroscience, psychology and behavioral economics · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-20910-9_39 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Tracking the visual system—from the optic chiasm to primary visual cortex
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“tives aiming to design visual prosthesis by microelectrode stimulation of the V1 [6].”
Modern concepts of bionic vision
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“Some treatment options have been transitioned to the clinical setting, such as gene therapy, cell therapy [53], retinal repair [54], and direct brain stimulation [55].”
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“Phosphenes are described by individuals receiving electrical stimulation as existing in the environment, and the locations of phosphenes relative to the direction of gaze are determined by placement of electrodes on V1 relative to the representation of the foveae [20,27].”
BackgroundCybernetic Hive Minds: A Review
Chowdhury, A., & Ramadas, R. (2022) · AI · doi:10.3390/ai3020027 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“There are also reports of electric stimulation using implanted electrodes that have caused visual activity [66].”
BackgroundTian, F., Liu, Y., Chen, M., Schriver, K. E., & Roe, A. W. (2025) · Cell Reports Methods · doi:10.1016/j.crmeth.2024.100961 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“75,76 Recently, Chen et al. used high-density 1,024-channel electrode arrays in areas V1 and V4 (consisting of a titanium pedestal connected to 16 Utah arrays; each Utah array has 8 3 8 channels, 1.5-mm-long shanks, and 400-m m channel spacing) of behaving macaques to produce phosphene percepts…”
InfluentialA Functional BCI Model by the P2731 working group: Physiology
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Sense Element Engagement Theory Explains How Neural Networks Produce Cortical Prosthetic VisionPreprint
Pavloski, R. P. (2021) · doi:10.36227/techrxiv.17161187 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“results in the experience of a phosphene (see reviews in [13],[14]).”
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A computational model to design wide field-of-view optic nerve neuroprostheses
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Filling in the Visual Gaps: Shifting Cortical Activity using Current Steering
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Visual Neuroprostheses for Impaired Human Nervous System: State‐of‐the‐Art and Future Outlook
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A mixed integer linear programming framework for improving cortical vision prosthesis designs
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Electrophysiological Signatures of Visual Sensations Elicited by Direct Electrical Stimulation
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“This offers a unique opportunity to study the brain networks involved in visual sensations, which may advance efforts to improve the performance and long-term stability of visual prosthetic devices [13] and provide insights into understanding visual hallucinations in multiple brain disorders.”
Object recognition from sparse simulated phosphenes and curved segments
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Electrical stimulation mapping of the visual cortex for epilepsy surgery
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Restoring vision and touch with cortical microstimulation
Valle, G., Oswalt, D. N., Gaunt, R. A., Roelfsema, P. R., Greenspon, C. M., & Fernandez, E. (2026) · Nature Reviews Bioengineering · doi:10.1038/s44222-026-00449-z · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“For example, stimulation of fingertip representations tends to produce smaller projected fields 61 relative to hand representations, and simulation of foveal representations evokes perception of smaller phosphenes relative to peripheral representations 64 .”
Neurosurgical Considerations for the Brain Computer Interface
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“However, the mechanisms by which it influences connected populations is not well understood: stimulation may excite, inhibit, or add noise to neuronal population activity.”
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Do action potentials cause consciousness?Preprint
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“More-over, existing automated methods suffer from limited precision, flexibility, and generalization in generating the desired complex visual perception based on actual visual stimuli (Bosking, Beauchamp, and Yoshor 2017).”
Restoring Vision Naturally and Noninvasively
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Neurosurgical Considerations for the Brain Computer Interface
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“To successfully evoke desired percepts, the processing unit must translate the visual input to stimulation patterns that drive neural activity, such that it is aligned with the intrinsic visual representations [7] (Fig.”
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“…& Mink, 2006) and sensory implants (e.g., retinal, cochlear or somatosensory prostheses) for restoring sensory function (Beauchamp et al., 2020; Bosking et al., 2017; Carlyon & Goehring, 2021; Cicmil & Krug, 2015; Lewis et al., 2015; Shepherd et al., 2013; Shim et al., 2020; Tehovnik & Slocum,…”
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Electrical stimulation of the human pulvinar generates visual percepts
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- Authors
- Bosking, W. H., Beauchamp, M. S., & Yoshor, D.
- Affiliations
- Baylor College of Medicine (US)
- Venue
- Annual Review of Vision Science
- Publisher
- Annual Reviews
- Published
- 2017-09-15
- Volume
- 3
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 141-166
- ISSN
- 2374-4642 (ISSN-L)
- 2374-4650
- PMC
- PMC6916716
- OpenAlex
- W2248803695
- Cited by
- 93
- References
- 121
- Citations by year
- 2026: 8 · 2025: 8 · 2024: 14 · 2023: 10 · 2022: 16 · 2021: 14 · 2020: 14 · 2019: 2 · 2018: 6 · 2017: 1
- FWCI
- 0.77
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Annual Review of Vision Science (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs (I01 CX001122)
- National Eye Institute (R01EY023336)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neuroscience and Neural Engineering
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Tactile and Sensory Interactions
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Visual perception and processing mechanisms
- Keywords
- phosphenes, visual prosthesis, blindness, visual perception, cortical plasticity, visual behavior
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Blindness, Electric Stimulation, Electrodes, Implanted, Humans, Phosphenes, Primates, Visual Cortex, Visual Perception, Visual Prosthesis
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