Habitual Dietary Intake of n-3 and n-6 Fatty Acids in Relation to Inflammatory Markers Among US Men and Women
Abstract
Background— Polyunsaturated fatty acid intake favorably affects chronic inflammatory-related diseases such as cardiovascular disease; however, high intake of n-6 fatty acids may attenuate the known beneficial effects of n-3 fatty acids. Methods and Results— We investigated habitual dietary n-3 fatty acid intake and its interaction with n-6 fatty acids in relation to the plasma inflammatory markers C-reactive protein, interleukin 6, and soluble tumor necrosis factor receptors 1 and 2 (sTNF-R1 and R2) among 405 healthy men and 454 healthy women. After adjustment for other predictors of inflammation, intake of the n-3 fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) was inversely associated with plasma levels of sTNF-R1 and sTNF-R2 ( P =0.03 and P <0.001, respectively) and somewhat less so for C-reactive protein ( P =0.08). n-3 α-linolenic acid and n-6 cis-linoleic acid were not significantly related to the inflammatory markers. We found little if any association between n-3 fatty acid (EPA+DHA) intake and tumor necrosis factor receptors among participants with low intake of n-6 but a strong inverse association among those with high n-6 intake ( P =0.04 and 0.002 for interaction of n-3 with n-6 on sTNF-R1 and sTNF-R2, respectively). Conclusions— These results suggest that n-6 fatty acids do not inhibit the antiinflammatory effects of n-3 fatty acids and that the combination of both types of fatty acids is associated with the lowest levels of inflammation. The inhibition of inflammatory cytokines may be one possible mechanism for the observed beneficial effects of these fatty acids on chronic inflammatory-related diseases.
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Pro-inflammatory effects of LA have been theorized and popularized, but such inference is based largely on rodent experiments, with little supportive evidence in humans.
“While pro-inflammatory effects of LA have been theorized358 and popularized, such inference is based largely on rodent experiments; with little supportive evidence in humans.359-362”
From Dietary and Policy Priorities for Cardiovascular Disease, Diabetes, and Obesity: A Comprehensive Review (2016) · cites this paper as [359]
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- Authors
- Pischon, T., Hankinson, S. E., Hotamisligil, G. S., Rifai, N., Willett, W. C., & Rimm, E. B.
- Affiliations
- Brigham and Women's Hospital (US)
- From the Departments of Nutrition and Epidemiology, Harvard School of Public Health (T.P., S.E.H., G.S.H., W.C.W., E.B.R.), Boston, Mass; Channing Laboratory, Harvard Medical School and Brigham & Women’s Hospital (S.E.H., W.C.W., E.B.R.) and Department of Laboratory Medicine, Children’s Hospital and Department of Pathology, Harvard Medical School (N.R.), Boston, Mass; and Franz-Volhard-Clinic, Charité, Humboldt-University (T.P.), Berlin, Germany.
- Venue
- Circulation
- Published
- 2003-07-15
- Volume
- 108
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 155-160
- ISSN
- 0009-7322 (ISSN-L)
- 1524-4539
- OpenAlex
- W2050574530
- Cited by
- 560
- References
- 43
- Citations by year
- 2026: 8 · 2025: 11 · 2024: 14 · 2023: 16 · 2022: 13 · 2021: 13 · 2020: 25 · 2019: 9 · 2018: 22 · 2017: 17 · 2016: 33 · 2015: 32 · 2014: 30 · 2013: 38 · 2012: 33
- FWCI
- 24.79
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Circulation (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- MDC Repository (Max-Delbrueck-Center for Molecular Medicine) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Deutscher Akademischer Austauschdienst
- National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (AA-11181, R01AA011181)
- National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (R01HL035464, HL35464)
- National Cancer Institute (CA-55075, CA67262)
- National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (P30DK046200)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Fatty Acid Research and Health
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Nutritional Studies and Diet
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Pharmacology › Inflammatory mediators and NSAID effects
- Keywords
- omega-3 fatty acids, omega-6 fatty acids, dietary fatty acid intake, eicosapentaenoic acid, docosahexaenoic acid, alpha-linolenic acid, soluble tumor necrosis factor receptor, C-reactive protein, interleukin-6, plasma inflammatory markers, chronic inflammation, cardiovascular disease
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Aged, C-Reactive Protein, Energy Intake, Cross-Sectional Studies, Fatty Acids, Unsaturated, Feeding Behavior, Female, Follow-Up Studies, Health Personnel, Humans, Inflammation, Male, Middle Aged, Prospective Studies, Surveys and Questionnaires, Reference Values, Sex Factors, United States, Cohort Studies, Biomarkers, Fatty Acids, Omega-3, Antigens, CD, Eicosanoids, Interleukin-6, Receptors, Tumor Necrosis Factor, Fatty Acids, Omega-6, Receptors, Tumor Necrosis Factor, Type I, Receptors, Tumor Necrosis Factor, Type II
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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