The Development of a Rasch-Type Loneliness Scale
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This paper describes an attempt to construct a measuring instrument for loneliness that meets the cri teria of a Rasch scale. Rasch (1960, 1966) proposed a latent trait model for the unidimensional scaling of di chotomous items that does not suffer from the inade quacies of classical approaches. The resulting Rasch scale of this study, which is based on data from 1,201 employed, disabled, and jobless adults, consists of five positive and six negative items. The positive items assess feelings of belongingness, whereas the negative items apply to three separate aspects of miss ing relationships. The techniques for testing the as sumptions underlying the Rasch model are compared with their counterparts from classical test theory, and the implications for the methodology of scale con struction are discussed.
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Studies with more comprehensive measures of loneliness are better able to detect associations between loneliness and subsequent cognitive decline.
“It is likely that studies with more comprehensive measures of loneliness (e.g., the De Jong Gierveld Loneliness Scale [de Jong-Gierveld & Kamphuls, 1985)] or the UCLA loneliness scale [Russell, 1996]) are better able to detect associations between loneliness and subsequent cognitive decline.”
From Longitudinal Associations Between Loneliness and Cognitive Ability in the Lothian Birth Cohort 1936 (2019) · cites this paper as de Jong-Gierveld & Kamphuls, 1985
Factor analyses of the 20-item UCLA Loneliness Scale have revealed two to five dimensions, with second-order factor analyses yielding a single hierarchical loneliness construct.
“factor analyses of the 20-item UCLA Loneliness Scale have revealed anywhere from two to five dimensions, with second-order factor analyses yielding a single hierarchical loneliness construct.”
From Loneliness and health in older adults: a mini-review and synthesis (2016) · cites this paper as [11]
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“…measures of psychological symptoms and psychopathology has a 30-year history (Bejar, 1977; D. C. Clark, vonAmmon Cavanaugh, & Gibbons, 1983; de Jong-Gierveld & Kamphuis, 1985; Gibbons, Clark, vonAmmon Cavanaugh, & Davis, 1985; Thissen & Steinberg, 1983), although the conceptual basis for IRT…”
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“Psychometrically robust self-report measures of loneliness have been developed and used extensively in research on physical health and on older people, including the University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA) Loneliness Scale [21] and the de Jong-Gierveld Loneliness Scale [22].”
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“Rasch scaling is a similar type of scale, e.g. De Jong Gierveld and Kamphuis (1985) and Kline (1993).”
MethodLoneliness and Risk of Alzheimer Disease
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“The majority of quantitative studies used validated tools, commonly the UCLA loneliness scale (or modified version thereof) (Russell et al. 1980), the De Jong Gierveld scale (de Jong Gierveld & Kamphuis 1985) or the Lubben Social Network scale (Lubben 1998).”
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“…the following 4 instruments of social isolation to be the leading ones in the literature: the Lubben Social Network Scale [62-64], the de Jong-Gierveld Loneliness Scale [55-56], the Medical Outcomes Study Social Support Survey [65], and the Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support [66].”
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“Loneliness was measured by a scale developed by de Jong Gierveld and Kamphuis (39), which consists of five positive items assessing feelings of belonging and six negative items applying to aspects of missing relationships.”
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“That is, loneliness can reflect the subjectively experienced lack of important social resources and was therefore measured by an 11-item loneliness scale ( DeJong-Gierveld & Kamphuis, 1985 ).”
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“…Marcoen et al., 1987), (b) the LSDQ (Asher et al., 1984; Asher & Wheeler, 1985; Cassidy & Asher, 1992), (c) the UCLA Loneliness Scale (Russell et al., 1980; Russell et al., 1978; Russell, 1996), and (d) the dJG-LS (de Jong Gierveld & Kamphuis, 1985; de Jong Gierveld & van Tilburg, 1999, 2006).”
BackgroundChanges in Older Adult Loneliness
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“Feelings of loneliness were measured by an 11-item scale developed by De Jong-Gierveld and Kamphuis (1985).”
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“Loneliness was measured by the de Jong-Gierveld Loneliness Scale (de Jong-Gierveld & Kamphuis, 1985).”
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“Loneliness was measured by a scale developed by De Jong-Gierveld and Kamphuis (1985), that consists of five positive items assessing feelings of belonging and six negative items applying to aspects of missing relationships.”
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“Eighteen items were constructed by adapting items from the widely used University of California Loneliness Scale (23) and the Dutch De Jong Gierveld Loneliness Scale (93).”
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Gender and Marital-History Differences in Emotional and Social Loneliness among Dutch Older Adults
Dykstra, P. A., & Gierveld, J. D. J. (2004) · Canadian Journal on Aging / La Revue canadienne du vieillissement · doi:10.1353/cja.2004.0018 · Cited by 296 · see citing works
Hoang, P., King, J. A., Moore, S., Moore, K., Reich, K., Sidhu, H., Tan, C. V., Whaley, C., & McMillan, J. (2022) · JAMA Network Open · doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2022.36676 · Cited by 315 · see citing works
Love at first swipe? Explaining Tinder self-presentation and motives
Ranzini, G., & Lutz, C. (2016) · Mobile Media & Communication · doi:10.1177/2050157916664559 · Cited by 307 · see citing works
Attrition in the Longitudinal Aging Study Amsterdam
Deeg, D. J. H., van Tilburg, T. G., Smit, J. H., & de Leeuw, E. D. (2002) · Journal of Clinical Epidemiology · doi:10.1016/s0895-4356(01)00475-9 · Cited by 286 · see citing works
Friendship, loneliness and depression in adolescents with Asperger's Syndrome
Whitehouse, A. J. O., Durkin, K., Jaquet, E., & Ziatas, K. (2009) · Journal of Adolescence · doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2008.03.004 · Cited by 286 · see citing works
Loneliness in Married, Widowed, Divorced, and Never-Married Older Adults
Pinquart, M. (2003) · Journal of Social and Personal Relationships · doi:10.1177/02654075030201002 · Cited by 286 · see citing works
“Loneliness was assessed with the 11-item Rasch-based loneliness scale by DeJong-Gierveld and Kamphuis (1985).”
MethodGenerations and Gender Survey (GGS)
Vikat, A., Spéder, Z., Beets, G. C. N., Billari, F. C., Bühler, C., Désesquelles, A., Fokkema, T., Hoem, J. M., MacDonald, A., Neyer, G. R., et al. (2007) · Demographic Research · doi:10.4054/demres.2007.17.14 · Cited by 285 · see citing works
Hawthorne, G. (2008) · Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s00127-007-0279-8 · Cited by 279 · see citing works
“She reported the same phenomenon and in her original paper reported this as the divide between positive/negative items within a unidimensional Rasch model [50], yet later she reinterpreted this to be consistent with Townsend’s [96, p.”
ResultSmith, M. L., Steinman, L. E., & Casey, E. A. (2020) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2020.00403 · Cited by 286 · see citing works
“Examples of existing of commonly used, validated assessment tools include the Berkman-Syme Social Network Index (37), Revised UCLA Loneliness Scale (38, 39), Duke Social Support Index (40), Lubben Social Network Scale (41), de Jong Gierveld Loneliness Scale (42, 43), Cornwell Perceived Isolation Scale (44), and Fronti…”
MethodBuecker, S., Mund, M., Chwastek, S., Sostmann, M., & Luhmann, M. (2021) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000332 · Cited by 295 · see citing works
Nicolaisen, M., & Thorsen, K. (2014) · The International Journal of Aging and Human Development · doi:10.2190/ag.78.3.b · Cited by 277 · see citing works
“1The “neither agree nor disagree” answers (equivalent to “more or less”) are not considered to be neutral answers but indicators of loneliness (de Jong Gierveld & Kamphuis, 1985), given the social stigma associated with loneliness (Dykstra et al., 2005).”
BackgroundMethodThe Burden of Caregiving in Partners of Long-Term Stroke Survivors
Reimer, W. J. M. S. O., de Haan, R. J., Rijnders, P. T., Limburg, M., & van den Bos, G. A. M. (1998) · Stroke · doi:10.1161/01.str.29.8.1605 · Cited by 274 · see citing works
Social exclusion of older people in deprived urban communities of England
Scharf, T., Phillipson, C., & Smith, A. E. (2005) · European Journal of Ageing · doi:10.1007/s10433-005-0025-6 · Cited by 273 · see citing works
Hickin, N., Käll, A., Shafran, R., Sutcliffe, S., Manzotti, G., & Langan, D. (2021) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2021.102066 · Cited by 273 · see citing works
Measures of Depression and Loneliness
Shaver, P. R., & Brennan, K. A. (1991) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-590241-0.50010-1 · Cited by 263 · see citing works
Quality of Marriages in Later Life and Emotional and Social Loneliness
Gierveld, J. D. J., Groenou, M. I. B. V., Hoogendoorn, A. W., & Smit, J. H. (2009) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/gbn043 · Cited by 258 · see citing works
Causal beliefs, social participation, and loneliness among older adults: A longitudinal study
Newall, N. E. G., Chipperfield, J. G., Clifton, R. A., Perry, R. P., Swift, A., & Ruthig, J. C. (2009) · Journal of Social and Personal Relationships · doi:10.1177/0265407509106718 · Cited by 258 · see citing works
Jylhä, M. K. (2004) · Canadian Journal on Aging / La Revue canadienne du vieillissement · doi:10.1353/cja.2004.0023 · Cited by 255 · see citing works
“Cross-cultural differences in loneliness have also been examined by Martin, Hagberg, and Poon (1997); van Tilburg, de Jong Gierveld, Lecchini, and Marsiglia (1998); and de Jong Gierveld and van Tilburg (1999).”
BackgroundInfluentialIntolerance of Uncertainty and Loneliness in Older Adults During the COVID-19 Pandemic
Parlapani, E., Holeva, V., Nikopoulou, V. A., Sereslis, K., Athanasiadou, M., Godosidis, A., Stephanou, T., & Diakogiannis, I. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00842 · Cited by 251 · see citing works
“Overall Male Female x2 df p Vcramer N % N % N % Depressive symptoms Mild 18 17.5 10 25 8 12.9 4.604 3 .203 .203 Moderate 45 43.7 18 45 27 43.5 Moderately severe 31 30.1 11 27.5 20 32.3 Severe 8 7.8 1 2.5 7 11.3 Total 102 99.1 40 100 62 100 Anxiety symptoms Mild 3 2.9 2 5.9 1 1.8 3.91 3 .270 .270 Moderate 28 28.2 11 32…”
MethodInfluentialFrison, E., & Eggermont, S. (2020) · Communication Research · doi:10.1177/0093650215617506 · Cited by 239 · see citing works
“The 11-item Loneliness Scale (de Jong-Gierveld & Kamphuls, 1985) was used to examine the adolescents’ level of loneliness.”
MethodGoll, J. C., Charlesworth, G. M., Scior, K., & Stott, J. C. H. (2015) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0116664 · Cited by 241 · see citing works
“Nevertheless, all participants were classified as lonely, over half surpassed the criterion for “severe loneliness” [42], and a satisfactory gender mix was obtained (5 males, 10 females).”
Loneliness in psychosis: a systematic review
Lim, M. H., Gleeson, J., Álvarez‐Jiménez, M., & Penn, D. L. (2018) · Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s00127-018-1482-5 · Cited by 235 · see citing works
“[33, 34] administered the brief six-item version of the De Jong Gierveld Loneliness Scale and reported a mean score of 17.13 (SD = 5.14) out of 30.”
MethodInfluentialUniversity students with autism: the social and academic experiences of university in the UK
Gurbuz, E., Hanley, M., & Riby, D. M. (2019) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-018-3741-4 · Cited by 232 · see citing works
Fokkema, T., & Knipscheer, K. (2007) · Aging & Mental Health · doi:10.1080/13607860701366129 · Cited by 230 · see citing works
“Degree of loneliness was measured with the aid of the loneliness scale developed by de Jong Gierveld and Kamphuis (1985).”
MethodInfluentialDeckx, L., van den Akker, M., & Buntinx, F. (2014) · European Journal of Oncology Nursing · doi:10.1016/j.ejon.2014.05.002 · Cited by 206 · see citing works
“The Loneliness Scale of De Jong-Gierveld (De Jong Gierveld et al., 2006; De Jong-Gierveld and Kamphuis, 1985) was used in two studies (Boer et al., 1998; Deckx et al., 2013).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSocial functioning in patients with depressive and anxiety disorders
Saris, I. M. J., Aghajani, M., van der Werff, S. J. A., van der Wee, N. J. A., & Penninx, B. W. J. H. (2017) · Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica · doi:10.1111/acps.12774 · Cited by 218 · see citing works
“The de Jong Gierveld loneliness scale (30) describes feelings of loneliness with 11 questions.”
BackgroundReducing social isolation and loneliness in older people: a systematic review protocol
Landeiro, F., Barrows, P., Musson, E. N., Gray, A. M., & Leal, J. (2017) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2016-013778 · Cited by 222 · see citing works
Buunk, B. P., & Schaufeli, W. B. (1999) · European Review of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/14792779943000080 · Cited by 220 · see citing works
van Baarsen, B., Snijders, T. A. B., Smit, J. H., & van Duijn, M. A. J. (2001) · Educational and Psychological Measurement · doi:10.1177/00131640121971103 · Cited by 217 · see citing works
“Earlier findings (De Jong-Gierveld & Kamphuis, 1985) suggesting that the 11-item Loneliness Scale conforms to a Rasch scale were not confirmed.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialGierveld, J. D. J., Dykstra, P. A., & Schenk, N. (2012) · Demographic Research · doi:10.4054/demres.2012.27.7 · Cited by 216 · see citing works
Newall, N. E. G., & Menec, V. H. (2019) · Journal of Social and Personal Relationships · doi:10.1177/0265407517749045 · Cited by 208 · see citing works
Nachtegaal, J., Smit, J. H., Smits, C., Bezemer, P. D., van Beek, J. H. M., Festen, J. Μ., & Kramer, S. E. (2009) · Ear and Hearing · doi:10.1097/aud.0b013e31819c6e01 · Cited by 202 · see citing works
“A score from 9 or 10 indicated severe loneliness, whereas a summed score of 11 indicated very severe loneliness (Van Tilburg & De Jong Gierveld 1999). c.”
BackgroundLoneliness of Older Immigrant Groups in Canada: Effects of Ethnic-Cultural Background
Gierveld, J. D. J., van der Pas, S., & Keating, N. C. (2015) · Journal of Cross-Cultural Gerontology · doi:10.1007/s10823-015-9265-x · Cited by 201 · see citing works
“Moreover, the findings of a study in Canada by Penning et al. (2014) supported the utility of the De Jong Gierveld scale for research involving middle-aged and older adults.”
BackgroundInfluentialUse of Direct Versus Indirect Approaches to Measure Loneliness in Later Life
Shiovitz-Ezra, S., & Ayalon, L. (2012) · Research on Aging · doi:10.1177/0164027511423258 · Cited by 201 · see citing works
“The latter was also found with regard to emotional and social loneliness on multivariate analyses using the 11-item De Jong Gierveld Loneliness Scale among married men and women (de Jong Gierveld, van Groenou, Hoogendoorn, & Smith, 2009).”
MethodInfluentialSocial Network, Social Support, and Loneliness in Older Persons with Different Chronic Diseases
Penninx, B. W. J. H., van Tilburg, T. G., Kriegsman, D. M. W., Boeke, A. J. P., Deeg, D. J. H., & van Eijk, J. T. M. (1999) · Journal of Aging and Health · doi:10.1177/089826439901100202 · Cited by 199 · see citing works
“In C.P.M. Knipscheer, J. de Jong Gierveld, T. G. van Tilburg & P. A. Dijkstra (Eds.)”
MethodInfluentialBoschloo, L., Vogelzangs, N., Smit, J. H., van den Brink, W., Veltman, D. J., Beekman, A. T. F., & Penninx, B. W. J. H. (2011) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2010.12.014 · Cited by 210 · see citing works
Changes in and factors related to loneliness in older men. The Zutphen Elderly Study.
Tijhuis, M., de Jong-Gierveld, J., Feskens, E., & Kromhout, D. (1999) · Age and Ageing · doi:10.1093/ageing/28.5.491 · Cited by 209 · see citing works
“Feelings of loneliness were measured by the De Jong-Gierveld Loneliness Scale, developed for use in survey research [18].”
MethodMa, R., Mann, F., Wang, J., Lloyd‐Evans, B., Terhune, J., Al-Shihabi, A., & Johnson, S. (2019) · Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s00127-019-01800-z · Cited by 192 · see citing works
Prevalence and Risk Factors of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Older Adults
van Zelst, W. H., de Beurs, E., Beekman, A. T. F., Deeg, D. J. H., & van Dyck, R. (2003) · Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics · doi:10.1159/000073030 · Cited by 193 · see citing works
Pronk, M., Deeg, D. J. H., Smits, C., van Tilburg, T. G., Kuik, D. J., Festen, J. Μ., & Kramer, S. E. (2011) · International Journal of Audiology · doi:10.3109/14992027.2011.599871 · Cited by 192 · see citing works
Consensus statement: loneliness in older adults, the 21st century social determinant of health?
PROHASKA, T. R., Burholt, V., Burns, A., Golden, J., Hawkley, L. C., LAWLOR, B. A., Leavey, G., Lubben, J., O’Sullivan, R., Perissinotto, C. M., et al. (2020) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2019-034967 · Cited by 190 · see citing works
Social, Emotional, and Existential Loneliness: A Test of the Multidimensional Concept
van Tilburg, T. G. (2020) · The Gerontologist · doi:10.1093/geront/gnaa082 · Cited by 188 · see citing works
Mund, M., Maes, M., Drewke, P. M., Gutzeit, A., Jaki, I., & Qualter, P. (2023) · Assessment · doi:10.1177/10731911221077227 · Cited by 192 · see citing works
“…Freuding, et al., 2020; Pinquart & Sörensen, 2001): the Rasch-Type Loneliness Scale (RTLS) and its facets emotional and social loneliness (de Jong Gierveld & Kamphuis, 1985; de Jong Gierveld & van Tilburg, 2006), the University of California Los Angeles Loneliness Scale (UCLA-LS) in its full (D.…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSlegers, K., van Boxtel, M. P. J., & Jolles, J. (2008) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/63.3.p176 · Cited by 185 · see citing works
“We measured social well-being by using the loneliness questionnaire (De Jong-Gierveld & Kamphuis, 1986).”
MethodMobile Phone Addiction, Phubbing, and Depression Among Men and Women: A Moderated Mediation Analysis
Ivanova, A., Gorbaniuk, O., Błachnio, A., Przepiórka, A., Mraka, N., Polishchuk, V., & Gorbaniuk, J. (2020) · Psychiatric Quarterly · doi:10.1007/s11126-020-09723-8 · Cited by 195 · see citing works
Franssen, T., Stijnen, M., Hamers, F., & Schneider, F. (2020) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-020-09208-0 · Cited by 180 · see citing works
“The scale was recoded as a dichotomous variable: no loneliness = 0 (scores 0–2) and moderate/severe loneliness = 1 (scores 3–11) [43].”
MethodInfluentialMeasuring loneliness in later life: a comparison of differing measures
Victor, C., Grenade, L., & Boldy, D. (2005) · Reviews in Clinical Gerontology · doi:10.1017/s0959259805001723 · Cited by 179 · see citing works
- Authors
- de Jong-Gierveld, J., & Kamphuls, F.
- Affiliations
- Free University, Amsterdam
- Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam (NL)
- Venue
- Applied Psychological Measurement
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 1985-09
- Volume
- 9
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 289-299
- ISSN
- 0146-6216 (ISSN-L)
- 1552-3497
- OpenAlex
- W1928146223
- Cited by
- 1,291
- References
- 35
- Citations by year
- 2026: 84 · 2025: 96 · 2024: 94 · 2023: 108 · 2022: 119 · 2021: 91 · 2020: 73 · 2019: 62 · 2018: 41 · 2017: 54 · 2016: 51 · 2015: 56 · 2014: 34 · 2013: 39 · 2012: 29
- FWCI
- 1.96
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- purl.umn.edu
- Locations
- Applied Psychological Measurement (publishedVersion)
- University of Minnesota Digital Conservancy (University of Minnesota) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Psychological Testing and Assessment
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Keywords
- loneliness, Rasch model, scale development, latent trait models, dichotomous items, sense of belonging, classical test theory comparison
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