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Cited by 107Impact of Technology on AdolescentsSleep and related disordersDigital Media and Philosophy

Understanding Links Between Social Media Use, Sleep and Mental Health: Recent Progress and Current Challenges

Open access
Scott, Holly, Woods, Heather Cleland·2019·Current Sleep Medicine Reports
DOI 10.1007/s40675-019-00148-9
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Abstract

Sleep and mental health researchers are increasingly recognising the need to update our approaches to understanding the unique social, emotional and cognitive aspects of social media use, rather than simply considering it as just another hour of total daily “screen time”. In this review, we highlight some recent developments in this area, discuss ongoing challenges facing this field and offer recommendations for future steps. The sleep and mental health research literatures have made recent advances towards a more nuanced understanding of social media use: moving beyond a focus on simply duration of use, towards new insights into the role of content, context and experience of these online interactions. As this research area moves forward, a focus on high-quality measurement—combined with collaborative multidisciplinary approaches that triangulate insight from different methodologies and perspectives—can inform a more holistic understanding of sleep and mental health in today’s connected world.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This review argues that sleep and mental health research must move beyond treating social media as generic “screen time” and instead examine content, context, and experience. It highlights recent progress in both literatures, identifies ongoing challenges around causality, measurement, and rapidly evolving platforms, and recommends high-quality measurement plus multidisciplinary triangulation.

Key findings

  • Sleep research has linked higher overall social media use to poorer sleep outcomes, including shorter sleep duration, later bedtimes, and poorer sleep quality; bedtime use is a strong predictor of poorer sleep outcomes independent of overall use. Proposed mechanisms include sleep displacement, cognitive arousal, and fear of missing out operating via behavioural and cognitive pathways.
  • Mental health findings for frequency/duration of social media use are mixed: some studies link more time to depressive or anxious symptoms, some find no significant associations, and some find positive outcomes such as reduced loneliness. A large-scale analysis indicated digital screen time accounts for very little variance in adolescent well-being.
  • Outcomes depend on platform, purpose, and interaction quality: image-based platforms like Instagram and Snapchat (but not text-based Twitter) were associated with decreased loneliness, especially when used to interact with known people; broadcasting content or interacting with strangers was linked to increased loneliness or negative social comparison. Cyberbullying is associated with poorer well-being, but effect sizes for poor mental health are similar to offline physical and relational bullying.
  • The authors recommend moving toward high-quality measures of motivations and experiences, triangulating multiple methodologies and disciplines, and using preprints to accelerate communication in a fast-moving field.

Methods

  • Narrative review of recent developments in sleep and mental health research on social media use, focusing on progress in the last 5 years, ongoing challenges, and recommendations for future steps.
  • No primary data collection or systematic review protocol is reported; the paper synthesizes existing literature and discusses measurement, causality, and evolving social media platforms.
  • The authors draw on examples from sleep and mental health studies, including cross-sectional, experimental, longitudinal, qualitative, and large-cohort work, to argue for more nuanced conceptualization and measurement.

Limitations

  • The authors state that available research primarily uses cross-sectional self-report data, so causality remains unresolved and relationships are likely bidirectional.
  • The authors state that the rapidly evolving social media landscape outpaces research, making measures quickly outdated and limiting generalizability across platforms, features, and norms.
  • The authors state that much research focuses on adolescents and young people, leaving other age groups understudied, and that measurement is often limited by single-item non-validated measures or platform-specific/pathologizing tools.
  • Evident from the text: as a narrative review, it does not report a systematic search strategy, inclusion criteria, or formal quality appraisal of included studies.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1007/s40675-019-00148-9

Cites

89 of 89 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 110 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingnone given

    The sleep and mental health research literatures have recently advanced towards a more nuanced understanding of social media use, moving beyond duration of use towards the role of content, context and experience of online interactions.

    “The sleep and mental health research literatures have made recent advances towards a more nuanced understanding of social media use: moving beyond a focus on simply duration of use, towards new insights into the role of content, context and experience of these online interactions.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Premisecitation

    The sleep literature tends to examine social media use as a technology-based activity, often measuring the frequency, duration and timing of use.

    “This approach tends to examine social media use as a technology-based activity, often measuring the frequency, duration and timing of use [25].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [25] Jenkins-Guarnieri MA, Wright SL, Johnson B. Development and validation of a social media use integration scale. Psychol Pop Media Cult. 2013;2(1):38–50. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030277 . source

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  • Interpretationreasoning

    The cognitive arousal mechanism is particularly salient for social media, which offers opportunities for rich social interactions in real time.

    “Whilst all proposed pathways are relevant for various screen-based technologies (including more passive media consumption), this cognitive arousal mechanism is particularly salient for social media, which offers opportunities for rich social interactions in real time.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Premisenone given

    More of the mental health literature has taken a social interaction perspective, compared with a technology perspective, to understanding social media use.

    “Interestingly, more of the mental health literature has taken a social interaction perspective-compared with a technology perspective-to understanding social media use.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Premisecitation

    The overall evidence on mental health associations is more mixed, supporting both positive and negative outcomes depending on how social media use is operationalised.

    “This may explain why the overall evidence on mental health associations is more mixed, supporting both positive and negative outcomes depending on how social media use is operationalised [13••].”
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    • cites [13••]

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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 21
  • May combine two claims. 36

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    This type of language from adults is not constructive and often shuts down the potential for meaningful dialogue that can build shared inter-generational understanding.

    “From our experience through research and engagement with adolescents and their teachers and parents, we have found that this type of language from adults is not constructive and often shuts down the potential for meaningful dialogue that can build shared inter-generational understanding.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Technology use can impact sleep by delaying bedtimes and/or interrupting nighttime sleep.

    “These mechanisms include technology use delaying bedtimes and/or interrupting nighttime sleep [28][29][30]”
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    • cites [28][29][30]

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    Premisecitation

    Social media platforms provide richly varied opportunities for social interactions, allowing individuals to curate a careful self-presentation through public profiles, quantify peer approval through number of likes and retweets, and extend daytime face-to-face peer interactions with 24/7 availability for individual and group messages.

    “Importantly, platforms provide richly varied opportunities for social interactions, allowing individuals to curate a careful selfpresentation through public profiles, quantify peer approval through number of likes and retweets and extend daytime face-to-face peer interactions with 24/7 availability for individual and group messages [7,17].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [7] Fox J, Moreland JJ. The dark side of social networking sites: an exploration of the relational and psychological stressors associated with Facebook use and affordances. Comput Hum Behav. 2015;45:168–76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2014.11.083 . source

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    • cites [17] Woods HC, Scott H. #Sleepyteens: social media use in adolescence is associated with poor sleep quality, anxiety, depression and low self-esteem. J Adolesc. 2016;51:41–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2016.05.008 . source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Technology use may impact sleep by increasing cognitive arousal at bedtime.

    “It has also been proposed that technology use may impact on sleep by increasing cognitive arousal at bedtime [1•, 27••, 32].”
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    • cites [1•, 27••, 32]

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    Premisecitation

    Social media use is receiving increasing attention independent from other forms of electronic media use, with researchers calling for improved understanding of its unique social, emotional and cognitive aspects in relation to sleep and mental health outcomes.

    “Therefore, social media use is receiving increasing attention independent from other forms of electronic media use, with researchers calling for improved understanding of its unique social, emotional and cognitive aspects in relation to sleep and mental health outcomes [10, 11••, 12, 13••, 14].”
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    • cites [10, 11••, 12, 13••, 14]

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    Premisecitation

    Social media platforms are easily accessible via smartphone apps, facilitating engagement throughout the day and alongside other activities, and are specifically designed to keep users engaged, with continual notifications and no clearly defined end point.

    “Platforms are easily accessible via smartphone apps (facilitating engagement throughout the day and alongside other activities) and specifically designed to keep users engaged, with continual notifications and no clearly defined end point [10,16].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [10] Bhat S, Pinto-Zipp G, Upadhyay H, Polos PG. “To sleep, perchance to tweet”: in-bed electronic social media use and its associations with insomnia, daytime sleepiness, mood, and sleep duration in adults. Sleep Health. 2018;4(2):166–73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleh.2017.12.004 . source

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    • cites [16] Exelmans L, Scott H. Social Media Use and Sleep Quality among Adults: The Role of Gender, Age and Social Media Checking Habit. Preprint: 17 April 2019. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/eqxdh source

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    Premisecitation

    Increasing connectivity offered by devices and platforms has facilitated increased time devoted to media activities and shifts in social norms and expectations around availability and etiquette for online interactions.

    “Currently, the increasing connectivity offered by devices and platforms has facilitated not only increased time devoted to these media activities, but also important shifts in social norms and expectations around availability and etiquette for online interactions [7][8][9].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [7] Fox J, Moreland JJ. The dark side of social networking sites: an exploration of the relational and psychological stressors associated with Facebook use and affordances. Comput Hum Behav. 2015;45:168–76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2014.11.083 . source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [8] Scott H, Biello SM, Woods HC. Identifying drivers for bedtime social media use despite sleep costs: the adolescent perspective. Preprint: 12 Oct 2018. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/2xb36 . source

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    • cites [9] Mai LM, Freudenthaler R, Schneider FM, Vorderer P. “I know you’ve seen it!” Individual and social factors for users’ chatting behavior on Facebook. Comput Hum Behav. 2015;49:296–302. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.01.074 . source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Sleep and mental health are two inextricably linked aspects of health that together present a significant and well-recognised social, economic and health burden internationally.

    “Researchers and practitioners are therefore updating their approaches to understanding and treating sleep and mental health as two inextricably linked aspects of health, which together present a significant and well-recognised social, economic and health burden internationally [22][23][24].”
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    • cites [22][23][24]

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    Premisecitation

    Existing reviews indicate that social media use, alongside other technology activities like TV viewing, video gaming and computer and smartphone use, is generally associated with poorer sleep outcomes, particularly shorter sleep duration and also delayed bedtimes and poorer sleep quality.

    “Existing reviews of this evidence indicate that social media use-alongside other technology activities like TV viewing, video gaming and computer and smartphone useis generally associated with poorer sleep outcomes, particularly shorter sleep duration and also delayed bedtimes and poorer sleep quality [1•, 2•, 26].”
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    • cites [1•, 2•, 26]

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    Premisereasoning

    Compared with other forms of technology or traditional media, social media platforms facilitate unique changes in how we spend our time and in how we interact with each other.

    “Compared with other forms of technology or traditional media, social media platforms facilitate unique changes not only in how we spend our time but also crucially in how we interact with each other.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

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    Premisecitation

    These features and user experiences contribute to increased time devoted to social media use and to evolving social norms around expected availability and the urgency of online interactions, presenting unique implications for mental health and sleep.

    “Together, these features and user experiences contribute not only to increased time devoted to social media use [18], but also importantly to evolving social norms around expected availability and the urgency of online interactions [7,8,19], presenting unique implications for mental health and sleep.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 4 sources checked
    • cites [18] Smith A, Anderson M. Social Media Use in 2018. Pew Research Center; 2018. Retrieved from: https://www.pewinternet.org/2018/03/01/social-media-use-in-2018/ .

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    • cites [7] Fox J, Moreland JJ. The dark side of social networking sites: an exploration of the relational and psychological stressors associated with Facebook use and affordances. Comput Hum Behav. 2015;45:168–76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2014.11.083 . source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [8] Scott H, Biello SM, Woods HC. Identifying drivers for bedtime social media use despite sleep costs: the adolescent perspective. Preprint: 12 Oct 2018. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/2xb36 . source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [19] Thomee S, Dellve L, Harenstam A, Hagberg M. Perceived connections between information and communication technology use and mental symptoms among young adults - a qualitative study. BMC Public Health. 2010;10:66. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-10-66 . source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Studies in this area are primarily cross-sectional, and the question of causality remains.

    “It is important to note, however, that studies are primarily crosssectional, and the question of causality remains”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    These findings are consistent with a sleep displacement mechanism, as an hour devoted to any activity including using social media is an hour spent awake.

    “These findings are consistent with a sleep displacement mechanism [1•, 27••, 28], as there are only 24 h in a day, and an hour devoted to any activity (including using social media) is an hour that is spent awake.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [1•, 27••, 28]

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    Interpretationcitation

    Focusing exclusively on reducing nighttime social media activity (e.g. by limiting access) is challenging to implement and fails to address other relevant factors, such as underlying concerns and arousal, that persist independent of actual social media activity.

    “For clinicians, educators and parents of adolescents, this indicates that focusing exclusively on reducing nighttime social media activity (e.g. by limiting access) is not only challenging to implement [45,46], but also fails to address other relevant factors, such as underlying concerns and arousal, that persist independent of actual social media activity.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [45] Bartel K, Scheeren R, Gradisar M. Altering adolescents’ pre-bedtime phone use to achieve better sleep health. Health Commun. 2018;34:1–7. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2017.1422099 . source

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    • cites [46] Houghton S, Hunter SC, Rosenberg M, Wood L, Zadow C, Martin K, et al. Virtually impossible: limiting Australian children and adolescents daily screen based media use. BMC Public Health. 2015;15(1):5. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-15-5 . source

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    Premisecitation

    Highly invested users report poorer sleep quality and may find it more difficult to disengage from social media at night.

    “This has implications for sleep outcomes, as highly invested users report poorer sleep quality and may find it more difficult to disengage from social media at night [17].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [17] Woods HC, Scott H. #Sleepyteens: social media use in adolescence is associated with poor sleep quality, anxiety, depression and low self-esteem. J Adolesc. 2016;51:41–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2016.05.008 . source

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    Premisecitation

    These protective and risk factors include perceived and actual levels of online social support, and the valence of individuals' social media content, interactions and social comparisons.

    “These include perceived and actual levels of online social support [35][36][37], and the valence of individuals' social media content, interactions and social comparisons [38][39][40].”
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    • cites [35][36][37]

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    Premisenone given

    This broader perspective on social media use, including its cognitive, social and emotional aspects, is increasingly represented in mental health literature.

    “This broader perspective on social media use (including its cognitive, social and emotional aspects) is increasingly represented in mental health literature.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

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    Premisecitation

    Young people often report feelings of disconnectedness and missing out without access to social media and prefer to keep their phones within close reach during the night.

    “Young people in particular often report feelings of disconnectedness and missing out without access to social media and prefer to keep their phones within close reach during the night [43].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [43] Vorderer P, Kromer N, Schneider FM. Permanently online - permanently connected: explorations into university students’ use of social media and mobile smart devices. Comput Hum Behav. 2016;63:694–703. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.05.085 . source

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    Interpretationreasoning

    Conceptualising social media use in minutes and hours only gives one part of the picture.

    “However, to meaningfully inform clinical practice and wider policy, it is crucial to remember that conceptualising social media use in minutes and hours only gives one part of the picture.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

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    Premisecitation

    Fear of missing out has been linked to shorter sleep duration via both a behavioural pathway (driving late night social media use, which delays bedtimes) and a cognitive pathway (increasing pre-sleep cognitive arousal, thus further delaying sleep onset).

    “This underlying fear of missing out has been linked to shorter sleep duration via both a behavioural pathway (by driving late night social media use, which delays bedtimes) and a cognitive pathway (by increasing pre-sleep cognitive arousal, thus further delaying sleep onset) [12].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [12] Scott H, Woods HC. Fear of missing out and sleep: cognitive behavioural factors in adolescents’ nighttime social media use. J Adolesc. 2018;68:61–5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2018.07.009 . source

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    Premisecitation

    Time spent using image-based platforms like Instagram and Snapchat (but not text-based platforms like Twitter) is associated with decreased loneliness, possibly due to an enhanced sense of intimacy.

    “For example, time spent using image-based platforms like Instagram and Snapchat (but not text-based platforms like Twitter) is associated with decreased loneliness, possibly due to an enhanced sense of intimacy [50].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [50] Pittman M, Reich B. Social media and loneliness: why an Instagram picture may be worth more than a thousand Twitter words. Comput Hum Behav. 2016;62:155–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.03.084 . source

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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Negative well-being outcomes are not inevitable, but depend on whether specific social media practices promote meaningful social connection.

    “Clark and colleagues stress the importance of understanding this quality of social connection in their proposed interpersonal-connection-behaviours framework [11••], arguing that negative well-being outcomes are not inevitable, but depend on whether specific social media practices promote meaningful social connection.”
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    • cites [11••]

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    Premisecitation

    Similar calls have been made in the mental health literature to examine the content, context and interactivity of social media use, rather than limiting discussions to simply total 'screen time'.

    “Therefore, as in the sleep field, similar calls have been made in the mental health literature to examine the content, context and interactivity of social media use, rather than limiting discussions to simply total "screen time" [10, 11••, 13••, 15•].”
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    • cites [10, 11••, 13••, 15•]

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    Premisecitation

    The benefit of decreased loneliness applies to individuals who use image-sharing platforms for the purpose of interacting with other people, whereas those who simply broadcast content report increased loneliness.

    “This benefit applies to individuals who use these image-sharing platforms for the purpose of interacting with other people, whereas those who simply broadcast content actually report increased loneliness [51].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [51] Yang C-C. Instagram use, loneliness, and social comparison orientation: interact and browse on social media, but don’t compare. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw. 2016;19(12):703–8. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2016.0201 . source

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    Premisecitation

    Those who use image-based platforms to interact with people they know personally are not at risk for negative consequences, whilst those who view and interact with image-based content from strangers are more likely to engage in negative social comparisons and have depressive symptoms.

    “Specifically, it seems that those who use image-based platforms to interact with people they know personally are not at risk for negative consequences, whilst those who view and interact with image-based content from strangers are more likely to engage in negative social comparisons and have depressive symptoms [52].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [52] Lup K, Trub L, Rosenthal L. Instagram #Instasad?: exploring associations among Instagram use, depressive symptoms, negative social comparison, and strangers followed. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw. 2015;18(5):247–52. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2014.0560 . source

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    Premisecitation

    Whilst depressed individuals tend to interpret their social media interactions more negatively, certain online experiences (negative social comparison, seeking but not receiving support) can further negatively impact on mood, exacerbating symptoms for those with existing mental health problems.

    “Similarly, whilst depressed individuals tend to interpret their social media interactions more negatively, certain online experiences (negative social comparison, seeking but not receiving support) can further negatively impact on mood, exacerbating symptoms for those with existing mental health problems [35,36,39,62].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 4 sources checked
    • cites [35] Frison E, Eggermont S. The impact of daily stress on adolescents’ depressed mood: the role of social support seeking through Facebook. Comput Hum Behav. 2015;44:315–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2014.11.070 . source

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    • cites [36] Park J, Lee DS, Shablack H, Verduyn P, Deldin P, Ybarra O, et al. When perceptions defy reality: the relationships between depression and actual and perceived Facebook social support. J Affect Disord. 2016;200:37–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2016.01.048 . source

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    • cites [39] Appel H, Crusius J, Gerlach AL. Social comparison, envy, and depression on Facebook: a study looking at the effects of high comparison standards on depressed individuals. J Soc Clin Psychol. 2015;34(4):277–89. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.2015.34.4.277 . source

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    • cites [62] Feinstein BA, Hershenberg R, Bhatia V, Latack JA, Meuwly N, Davila J. Negative social comparison on Facebook and depressive symptoms: rumination as a mechanism. US: Educational Publishing Foundation; 2013. p. 161–70.

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Taking this broader perspective on social media use has brought valuable new insight to links with mental health, and can offer similar benefits to sleep research and practice.

    “Taking this broader perspective on social media use (moving beyond simply hours per day, to examine a range of relevant social and emotional aspects) has therefore brought valuable new insight to links with mental health, and we argue that this can offer similar benefits to sleep research and practice.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

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    Premisecitation

    Positive online social interactions are associated with increased self-esteem and positive mental well-being, as well as decreased anxiety and depression, by providing social support and positive feedback.

    “In contrast, positive online social interactions are associated with increased self-esteem and positive mental well-being, as well as decreased anxiety and depression, by providing social support and positive feedback [13••, 56].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [13••, 56]

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    Premisecitation

    The relationship between social media use and sleep is likely bidirectional, with some poor sleepers and those who have naturally later circadian preferences also turning to social media as a sleep aid or to pass time until they fall asleep.

    “However, it is likely that this relationship is bidirectional, with some poor sleepers and those who have naturally later circadian preferences also turning to social media as a sleep aid or to pass time until they fall asleep [60,61].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [60] Exelmans L, Van den Bulck J. The use of media as a sleep aid in adults. Behav Sleep Med. 2016;14(2):121–33. https://doi.org/10.1080/15402002.2014.963582 . source

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    • cites [61] Tavernier R, Willoughby T. Sleep problems: predictor or outcome of media use among emerging adults at university? J Sleep Res. 2014;23(4):389–96. https://doi.org/10.1111/jsr.12132 . source

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    Premisecitation

    Available multi-item validated measures are often specific to one platform and/or pathologise social media use.

    “Furthermore, available multi-item validated measures are often specific to one platform [84,85] and/or pathologise social media use [86][87][88].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [84] Ellison NB, Steinfield C, Lampe C. The benefits of Facebook “friends”: social capital and college students’ use of online social network sites. J Comput-Mediat Commun. 2007;12(4):1143–68. source

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    • cites [85] Ross C, Orr ES, Sisic M, Arseneault JM, Simmering MG, Orr RR. Personality and motivations associated with Facebook use. Comput Hum Behav. 2009;25(2):578–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2008.12.024 . source

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    • cites [86][87][88]

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    Premisecitation

    Existing studies consistently voice the need for future longitudinal work to examine temporal directionality and causality.

    “Existing studies consistently voice the need for future longitudinal work to examine temporal directionality and causality [10,17,63].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [10] Bhat S, Pinto-Zipp G, Upadhyay H, Polos PG. “To sleep, perchance to tweet”: in-bed electronic social media use and its associations with insomnia, daytime sleepiness, mood, and sleep duration in adults. Sleep Health. 2018;4(2):166–73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleh.2017.12.004 . source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [17] Woods HC, Scott H. #Sleepyteens: social media use in adolescence is associated with poor sleep quality, anxiety, depression and low self-esteem. J Adolesc. 2016;51:41–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2016.05.008 . source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [63] Li X, Buxton OM, Lee S, Chang AM, Berger LM, Hale L. Sleep mediates the association between adolescent screen time and depressive symptoms. Sleep Med. 2019;57:51–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleep.2019.01.029 . source

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    Premisecitation

    The most popular platform to be studied in relation to anxiety and depression (as of June 2016) was Facebook, which is now facing competition from other much more rapidly growing platforms, particularly among young people.

    “For example, the most popular platform to be studied in relation to anxiety and depression (as of June 2016) was Facebook [13••], which is now facing competition from other much more rapidly growing platforms, particularly among young people [18].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [13••]

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [18] Smith A, Anderson M. Social Media Use in 2018. Pew Research Center; 2018. Retrieved from: https://www.pewinternet.org/2018/03/01/social-media-use-in-2018/ .

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Examining social media habits over time can present particular challenges when platforms, features and associated norms are continually shifting.

    “However, examining social media habits over time can present particular challenges when platforms, features and associated norms are continually shifting.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Research literature often approaches media use as a potential threat or harmful activity, using language around social media 'addiction' and 'problematic use', which can pathologise social media use despite insufficient evidence for considering it an addiction.

    “For example, research literature often approaches media use as a potential threat or harmful activity, using language around social media "addiction" and "problematic use" [10,[72][73][74][75][76][77][78][79], which can pathologise social media use despite insufficient evidence for considering it an addiction [80].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [10,[72]...]

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [80] Billieux J, Maurage P, Lopez-Fernandez O, Kuss D, Griffiths M. Can Disordered Mobile Phone Use Be Considered a Behavioral Addiction? An Update on Current Evidence and a Comprehensive Model for Future Research. Current Addiction Reports. 2015;2:156. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40429-015-0054-y . source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Poor quality measurement is surprisingly prevalent in published literature and can seriously undermine the conclusions of a study.

    “poor quality measurement is surprisingly prevalent in published literature and can seriously undermine the conclusions of a study [83•]”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [83•]

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Measurement is of critical importance to the research process and yet is often overlooked.

    “Measurement is of critical importance to the research process and yet is often overlooked: poor quality measurement is surprisingly prevalent in published literature and can seriously undermine the conclusions of a study [83•].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [83•]

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Adolescents and emerging adults must navigate an intense developmental stage, whilst managing high academic demands, during a period of increased risk for developing lifelong poor mental health.

    “These concerns are understandable, since adolescents and emerging adults must navigate an intense developmental stage, whilst managing high academic demands, during a period of increased risk for developing lifelong poor mental health [67,68].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [67] Orth U, Maes J, Schmitt M. Self-esteem development across the life span: a longitudinal study with a large sample from Germany. Dev Psychol. 2015;51(2):248–59. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0038481 . source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [68] McLaughlin KA, King K. Developmental trajectories of anxiety and depression in early adolescence. J Abnorm Child Psychol. 2015;43(2):311–23. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-014-9898-1 . source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    With the introduction of 'read receipts', users can now see when a message has been viewed, which contributes to perceived obligation to respond quickly.

    “For example, with the introduction of "read receipts", users can now see when a message has been viewed, which contributes to perceived obligation to respond quickly [8,9].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [8] Scott H, Biello SM, Woods HC. Identifying drivers for bedtime social media use despite sleep costs: the adolescent perspective. Preprint: 12 Oct 2018. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/2xb36 . source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [9] Mai LM, Freudenthaler R, Schneider FM, Vorderer P. “I know you’ve seen it!” Individual and social factors for users’ chatting behavior on Facebook. Comput Hum Behav. 2015;49:296–302. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.01.074 . source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    The potentially changing implications of social media use for health and well-being across the lifespan remain a gap in current understanding.

    “and its potentially changing implications for health and well-being across the lifespan remain a gap in current understanding [16].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [16] Exelmans L, Scott H. Social Media Use and Sleep Quality among Adults: The Role of Gender, Age and Social Media Checking Habit. Preprint: 17 April 2019. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/eqxdh source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    In this rapidly evolving social media landscape, research measures can quickly become outdated and even relatively recent findings may not generalise beyond the specific platforms and devices in vogue at the time of data collection.

    “Therefore, in this rapidly evolving social media landscape, research measures can quickly become outdated and even relatively recent findings may not generalise beyond the specific platforms and devices in vogue at the time of data collection [2•, 64], as users' experiences are constantly changing.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [2•, 64]

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Preprints offer a simple way to accelerate communication of new findings, with benefits for authors and the field as a whole.

    “Preprints offer a simple way to accelerate communication of new findings, with benefits for authors and the field as a whole [91]”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [91] Sarabipour S, Debat HJ, Emmott E, Burgess SJ, Schwessinger B, Hensel Z. On the value of preprints: an early career researcher perspective. PLoS Biol. 2019;17(2):e3000151. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3000151 . source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductcitation

    The authors' current work has developed and validated a measure of difficulty disengaging from social media at night, whose content and wording is built from an adolescent perspective.

    “In our current work, we have developed and validated a measure of difficulty disengaging from social media at night, whose content and wording is built from an adolescent perspective [8].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [8] Scott H, Biello SM, Woods HC. Identifying drivers for bedtime social media use despite sleep costs: the adolescent perspective. Preprint: 12 Oct 2018. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/2xb36 . source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Preprints can be especially valuable when studying rapidly evolving phenomena like social media use.

    “which can be especially valuable when studying rapidly evolving phenomena like social media use.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Having tools available to capture underlying issues such as motivations for and experiences of online social interactions allows researchers to build a more nuanced understanding and improves the longevity of measures, as specific platforms and features rise and fall over time.

    “Having tools available to capture underlying issues (e.g.motivations for and experiences of online social interactions) allows us to build a more nuanced understanding and also improves the longevity of measures, as specific platforms and features rise and fall over time [11••].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [11••]

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationnone given

    Measurement is a key issue to address when aiming to maximise the relevance and longevity of current research in a rapidly evolving social media landscape.

    “Furthermore, measurement is a key issue to address when aiming to maximise the relevance and longevity of current research in a rapidly evolving social media landscape (which can become particularly problematic in longitudinal work).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Premisecitation

    Rapid developments in technological and social trends mean that even the very latest published research findings can quickly become outdated.

    “Rapid developments in technological and social trends mean that even the very latest published research findings can quickly become outdated”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [64] Lancet T. Social media, screen time, and young people’s mental health. Lancet. 2019;393(10172):611. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(19)30358-7 . source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Collaborative multidisciplinary approaches that triangulate insight from different methodologies and perspectives can help inform an integrated understanding of sleep and mental health in today's connected world.

    “Collaborative multidisciplinary approaches that triangulate insight from different methodologies and perspectives can help inform an integrated understanding of sleep and mental health in today's connected world.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: No single methodological or theoretical approach can ever provide the full story.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Sleep and mental health are two inextricably linked aspects of overall health and well-being.

    “support ongoing efforts to improve understanding of sleep and mental health as two inextricably linked aspects of overall health and well-being [20].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [20] Reynolds CF 3rd, O’Hara R. DSM-5 sleep-wake disorders classification: overview for use in clinical practice. Am J Psychiatry. 2013;170(10):1099–101. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2013.13010058 source

      Not checked in the free run.

48 of 48

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Survey space often limits large cohort surveys to single-item measures of screen time or daily social media use.

    “with survey space often limiting large cohort surveys to single-item measures of”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    No single methodological or theoretical approach can ever provide the full story.

    “Of course, no single methodological or theoretical approach can ever provide the full story”
2 of 2

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Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • In-text citation numbers are shifted from the reference list

    Minor

    The text cites Clark and colleagues as reference 11, but their paper is listed as reference 12. The reference list begins with an explanatory note numbered 1, leaving the cited papers one number higher than their in-text citations.

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Authors
Scott, H., & Woods, H. C.
Affiliations
University of Glasgow (GB)
Corresponding author
Scott, Holly
ORCID
Venue
Current Sleep Medicine Reports
Publisher
Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published
2019-07-13
Volume
5
Issue
3
Pages
141-149
ISSN
2198-6401 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1007/s40675-019-00148-9
OpenAlex
W2960383546
Semantic Scholar
f948b4d7ffd1759c1adcc4ebd1ca395105333565
Cited by
105
References
87
Citations by year
2026: 11 · 2025: 15 · 2024: 13 · 2023: 21 · 2022: 17 · 2021: 18 · 2020: 9 · 2019: 1
FWCI
22.66
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Current Sleep Medicine Reports (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • ENLIGHTEN (Jurnal Bimbingan dan Konseling Islam) (acceptedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Funders
University of Glasgow
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Impact of Technology on Adolescents
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Sleep and related disorders
  • Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Computer Science Applications › Digital Media and Philosophy
Keywords
social media use, sleep, mental health, screen time, social media content, measurement quality, multidisciplinary research, online interaction

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-07.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-07.

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