The DOI matches its Crossref record; 79 of the 79 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Beyond Willpower: Strategies for Reducing Failures of Self-Control
Abstract
Almost everyone struggles to act in their individual and collective best interests, particularly when doing so requires forgoing a more immediately enjoyable alternative. Other than exhorting decision makers to “do the right thing,” what can policymakers do to reduce overeating, undersaving, procrastination, and other self-defeating behaviors that feel good now but generate larger delayed costs? In this review, we synthesize contemporary research on approaches to reducing failures of self-control. We distinguish between self-deployed and other-deployed strategies and, in addition, between situational and cognitive intervention targets. Collectively, the evidence from both psychological science and economics recommends psychologically informed policies for reducing failures of self-control.
Overview
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Citations
Cites
1 retracted
RETRACTED: Procrastination, Deadlines, and Performance: Self-Control by Precommitment
Ariely, D., & Wertenbroch, K. (2002) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/1467-9280.00441 · Cited by 1,266
RetractedDiamond, A. (2013) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750 · Cited by 13,268
In search of how people change: Applications to addictive behaviors.
Prochaska, J. O., DiClemente, C. C., & Norcross, J. C. (1992) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.47.9.1102 · Cited by 8,596
Building a practically useful theory of goal setting and task motivation: A 35-year odyssey.
Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (2002) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.57.9.705 · Cited by 7,766 · cited 1×
“Across dozens of field studies, setting specific, difficult goals has been shown to help people achieve higher performance than exhortations to “do your best” (Locke & Latham, 2002).”
BackgroundMindfulness: A proposed operational definition.
Bishop, S. R., Lau, M., Shapiro, S., Carlson, L., Anderson, N. D., Carmody, J., Segal, Z. V., Abbey, S., Speca, M., Velting, D., et al. (2004) · Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice · doi:10.1093/clipsy.bph077 · Cited by 7,234
Construal-level theory of psychological distance.
Trope, Y., & Liberman, N. (2010) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/a0018963 · Cited by 6,618
Golden eggs and hyperbolic discounting
Laibson, D. (1997) · The Quarterly Journal of Economics · doi:10.1162/003355397555253 · Cited by 6,122
Self-citationStatus quo bias in decision making
Samuelson, W., & Zeckhauser, R. (1988) · Journal of Risk and Uncertainty · doi:10.1007/bf00055564 · Cited by 5,897
Implementation intentions: Strong effects of simple plans.
Gollwitzer, P. M. (1999) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.54.7.493 · Cited by 5,478
Cognitive Therapy of Depression
HOLLON, S. D., & BECK, A. T. (1979) · Cognitive-Behavioral Interventions · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-404480-7.50012-5 · Cited by 4,685
Studies of independence and conformity: I. A minority of one against a unanimous majority
Asch, S. E. (1956) · Psychological Monographs: General and Applied · doi:10.1037/h0093718 · Cited by 4,267
Kabat-Zinn, J. (1982) · General Hospital Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/0163-8343(82)90026-3 · Cited by 4,255
The Constructive, Destructive, and Reconstructive Power of Social Norms
Schultz, P. W., Nolan, J. M., Cialdini, R. B., Goldstein, N. J., & Griskevicius, V. (2007) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01917.x · Cited by 3,643
Be smart, exercise your heart: Exercise effects on brain and cognition
Hillman, C. H., Erickson, K. I., & Kramer, A. F. (2008) · Nature Reviews Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nrn2298 · Cited by 3,563
The Efficacy of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy: A Review of Meta-analyses
Hofmann, S. G., Asnaani, A., Vonk, I. J. J., Sawyer, A. T., & Fang, A. (2012) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-012-9476-1 · Cited by 3,445 · cited 1×
“8) for anger and aggression (Hofmann et al., 2012) and for gambling (Hedges’s g = .”
BackgroundA Room with a Viewpoint: Using Social Norms to Motivate Environmental Conservation in Hotels
Goldstein, N. J., Cialdini, R. B., & Griskevicius, V. (2008) · Journal of Consumer Research · doi:10.1086/586910 · Cited by 3,409 · cited 2×
“Gollwitzer, 1999; Leventhal, Singer, & Jones, 1965). A certain type of plan, called an implementation intention, links an anticipated cue with a desired action. Such if-then implementation intentions have been shown to create mental associations that are automatically enacted and psychologically costly to break (P. M.…”
BackgroundInfluentialDelay of gratification in children.
Mischel, W., Shoda, Y., & Rodriguez, M. L. (1989) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.2658056 · Cited by 3,397
Implementation intentions and goal achievement: a meta-analysis of effects and processes
Gollwitzer, P. M., & Sheeran, P. (2006) · Advances in Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(06)38002-1 · Cited by 3,236 · cited 2×
“Such if-then implementation intentions have been shown to create mental associations that are automatically enacted and psychologically costly to break (P. M. Gollwitzer & Sheeran, 2006; Rogers, Milkman, John, & Norton, 2015).”
BackgroundInfluentialPsychology as the behaviorist views it
Watson, J. B. (1913) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/h0074428 · Cited by 3,230
Separate neural systems value immediate and delayed monetary rewards
McClure, S. M., Laibson, D. I., Loewenstein, G., & Cohen, J. D. (2004) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1100907 · Cited by 3,089
Self-citationMyopia and Inconsistency in Dynamic Utility Maximization
Strotz, R. H. (1955) · The Review of Economic Studies · doi:10.2307/2295722 · Cited by 2,834 · cited 1×
“Self-deployed strategies require some amount of “sophistication,” or conscious awareness of the possibility of future self-control conflicts (Laibson, 1997; Strotz, 1955).”
BackgroundSocial norms and energy conservation
Allcott, H. (2011) · Journal of Public Economics · doi:10.1016/j.jpubeco.2011.03.003 · Cited by 2,802 · cited 2×
“In a massive field study run by the company OPower, being informed about the energy consumption of one’s neighbors in similar homes was shown to promote energy conservation, leading to reliable 2% year-over-year reductions in energy usage (Allcott, 2011). Moreover, these reductions in energy use persist over multiple…”
BackgroundCultivating competence, self-efficacy, and intrinsic interest through proximal self-motivation.
Bandura, A., & Schunk, D. H. (1981) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.41.3.586 · Cited by 2,675 · cited 1×
“The former group outperformed the latter group by about 40% on a posttest of math skill (Bandura & Schunk, 1981).”
BackgroundMeditation Programs for Psychological Stress and Well-being: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis
Goyal, M., Singh, S., Sibinga, E. M. S., Gould, N. F., Rowland-Seymour, A., Sharma, R., Berger, Z., Sleicher, D., Maron, D. D., Shihab, H. M., et al. (2014) · JAMA Internal Medicine · doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2013.13018 · Cited by 2,380
Ego depletion and the strength model of self-control: a meta-analysis
Hagger, M. S., Wood, C., Stiff, C., & Chatzisarantis, N. L. D. (2010) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0019486 · Cited by 2,265
An economic theory of self-control.
Thaler, R. H., & Shefrin, H. M. (1981) · Journal of Political Economy · doi:10.1086/260971 · Cited by 2,203 · cited 3×
“Self-control conflicts are the consequence of a present-oriented valuation system disagreeing with a future-oriented valuation system (Fudenberg & Levine, 2006; Loewenstein & O’Donoghue, 2004; Thaler & Shefrin, 1981).”
BackgroundThaler, R. H., & Sunstein, C. R. (2003) · American Economic Review · doi:10.1257/000282803321947001 · Cited by 1,874
Creswell, J. D. (2017) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-042716-051139 · Cited by 1,702 · cited 5×
“Although rooted in a 2,500-year-old Buddhist tradition of scholarship and practice, mindfulness is now a popular secular practice (Analayo, 2003; Creswell, 2017).”
BackgroundInfluentialAn opportunity cost model of subjective effort and task performance
Kurzban, R., Duckworth, A., Kable, J. W., & Myers, J. (2013) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x12003196 · Cited by 1,381
Self-citationImplementation intentions and effective goal pursuit.
Gollwitzer, P. M., & Brandstätter, V. (1997) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.73.1.186 · Cited by 1,343
Descriptive norms as an additional predictor in the theory of planned behaviour: A meta-analysis
Rivis, A., & Sheeran, P. (2003) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-003-1018-2 · Cited by 1,258
School Readiness and Self-Regulation: A Developmental Psychobiological Approach
Blair, C., & Raver, C. C. (2015) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-010814-015221 · Cited by 1,240 · cited 1×
“Thus, there is tremendous value in understanding the long-term effects of adversity on executive function, particularly in childhood and adolescence (Blair & Raver, 2015) as well as the proximal effects of poverty, racism, and scarcity on self-controlled decision making (Duckworth, Kim, &…”
BackgroundSelf-monitoring in weight loss: a systematic review of the literature
Burke, L. E., Wang, J., & Sevick, M. A. (2011) · Journal of the American Dietetic Association · doi:10.1016/j.jada.2010.10.008 · Cited by 1,203
Quitting smoking among adults—United States, 2000-2015.
Babb, S., Malarcher, A., Schauer, G., Asman, K., & Jamal, A. (2017) · MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report · doi:10.15585/mmwr.mm6552a1 · Cited by 1,147
Mrazek, M. D., Franklin, M. S., Phillips, D. T., Baird, B., & Schooler, J. W. (2013) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797612459659 · Cited by 1,063
Time Discounting for Primary Rewards
McClure, S. M., Ericson, K. M., Laibson, D. I., Loewenstein, G., & Cohen, J. D. (2007) · The Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.4246-06.2007 · Cited by 971
Self-citationPossible selves and academic outcomes: How and when possible selves impel action.
Oyserman, D., Bybee, D., & Terry, K. (2006) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.91.1.188 · Cited by 852
Akerlof, G., & Akerlof, G. (1991) · Unknown · doi:10.22004/ag.econ.294661 · Cited by 849
Schonert-Reichl, K. A., Oberle, E., Lawlor, M. S., Abbott, D., Thomson, K., Oberlander, T. F., & Diamond, A. (2015) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0038454 · Cited by 813 · cited 1×
“, 2016), and emotion regulation and aggression (Schonert-Reichl et al., 2015).”
BackgroundCorrelational effect size benchmarks
Bosco, F. A., Aguinis, H., Singh, K., Field, J. G., & Pierce, C. A. (2015) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0038047 · Cited by 768
Normative data from the CANTAB I: development of executive function over the lifespan
De Luca, C. R., Wood, S. J., Anderson, V., Buchanan, J.-A., Proffitt, T. M., Mahony, K., & Pantelis, C. (2003) · Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1076/jcen.25.2.242.13639 · Cited by 710
Lateral prefrontal cortex and self-control in intertemporal choice
Figner, B., Knoch, D., Johnson, E. J., Krosch, A. R., Lisanby, S. H., Fehr, E., & Weber, E. U. (2010) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nn.2516 · Cited by 706
Bowen, S., Witkiewitz, K., Clifasefi, S. L., Grow, J., Chawla, N., Hsu, S. H., Carroll, H. A., Harrop, E., Collins, S. E., Lustyk, M. K., et al. (2014) · JAMA Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2013.4546 · Cited by 701
Does monitoring goal progress promote goal attainment? A meta-analysis of the experimental evidence.
Harkin, B., Webb, T. L., Chang, B. P. I., Prestwich, A., Conner, M., Kellar, I., Benn, Y., & Sheeran, P. (2016) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000025 · Cited by 564
Cognitive therapy: Current status and future directions
Beck, A. T., & Dozois, D. J. A. (2011) · Annual Review of Medicine · doi:10.1146/annurev-med-052209-100032 · Cited by 560
Emotional foundations of cognitive control
Inzlicht, M., Bartholow, B. D., & Hirsh, J. B. (2015) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2015.01.004 · Cited by 542
Negotiating with Yourself and Losing: Making Decisions with Competing Internal Preferences
Bazerman, M. H., Tenbrunsel, A. E., & Wade-Benzoni, K. (1998) · The Academy of Management Review · doi:10.2307/259372 · Cited by 510
A 2-Phase Labeling and Choice Architecture Intervention to Improve Healthy Food and Beverage Choices
Thorndike, A. N., Sonnenberg, L., Riis, J., Barraclough, S., & Levy, D. E. (2012) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.2011.300391 · Cited by 405
The psychological lives of the poor
Schilbach, F., Schofield, H., & Mullainathan, S. (2016) · American Economic Review · doi:10.1257/aer.p20161101 · Cited by 404
A meta-analysis of randomized trials of behavioural treatment of depression
Ekers, D., Richards, D., & Gilbody, S. (2008) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291707001614 · Cited by 400
Attribution versus persuasion as a means for modifying behavior.
Miller, R. L., Brickman, P., & Bolen, D. (1975) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0076539 · Cited by 348
Mindfulness-Based Relapse Prevention for substance craving
Witkiewitz, K., Bowen, S., Douglas, H., & Hsu, S. H. (2013) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2012.04.001 · Cited by 337
The Fresh Start Effect: Temporal Landmarks Motivate Aspirational Behavior
Dai, H., Milkman, K. L., & Riis, J. (2014) · Management Science · doi:10.1287/mnsc.2014.1901 · Cited by 335 · cited 2×
“Correlational evidence shows that self-controlled acts (e.g., searches for the term “diet” on Google, gym visits, and the creation of goals on one popular goalsetting Web site) increase naturally on fresh-start dates (Dai et al., 2014).”
BackgroundSelf-citationThe role of proximal intentions in self-regulation of refractory behavior
Bandura, A., & Simon, K. M. (1977) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/bf01186792 · Cited by 306
Self-monitoring may be necessary for successful weight control
Baker, R. C., & Kirschenbaum, D. S. (1993) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/s0005-7894(05)80212-6 · Cited by 304
Promoting Healthy Choices: Information versus Convenience
Wisdom, J., Downs, J. S., & Loewenstein, G. (2010) · American Economic Journal: Applied Economics · doi:10.1257/app.2.2.164 · Cited by 304
Brewer, J. A., Elwafi, H. M., & Davis, J. H. (2013) · Psychology of Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1037/a0028490 · Cited by 303
Cottraux, J., Note, I., Yao, S. N., Lafont, S., Note, B., Mollard, E., Bouvard, M., Sauteraud, A., Bourgeois, M., & Dartigues, J.-F. (2001) · Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics · doi:10.1159/000056269 · Cited by 298 · cited 1×
“Several studies support the independent benefits of “pure” behavior therapy (e.g., K. M. Carroll & Onken, 2005; Cottraux et al., 2001; Ekers, Richards, & Gilbody, 2008), and the fundamental premise that behavior is influenced by past and present cost and benefit contingencies is widely accepted (Roediger, 2004).”
ResultMindful attention reduces neural and self-reported cue-induced craving in smokers
Westbrook, C., Creswell, J. D., Tabibnia, G., Julson, E., Kober, H., & Tindle, H. A. (2013) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nsr076 · Cited by 278
Gooding, P., & Tarrier, N. (2009) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2009.04.002 · Cited by 267 · cited 1×
“…relevance to self-control are CBT’s smallto medium-sized effects (ds = 0.2–0.5) for addiction and substance use disorder and medium to large effects (ds = 0.5–0.8) for anger and aggression (Hofmann et al., 2012) and for gambling (Hedges’s g = .58 at 6-month follow-up; Gooding & Tarrier, 2009).”
BackgroundInfluentialThe Endowed Progress Effect: How Artificial Advancement Increases Effort
Nunes, J. C., & Drèze, X. (2006) · Journal of Consumer Research · doi:10.1086/500480 · Cited by 260 · cited 1×
“Accomplishing these subgoals leads to small wins, which foster a sense of progress and boost self-efficacy (Amabile & Kramer, 2011; Nunes & Drèze, 2006; Stock & Cervone, 1990).”
BackgroundKross, E., & Ayduk, O. (2017) · Advances in Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/bs.aesp.2016.10.002 · Cited by 245
Ill Communication: Technology, distraction & student performance
Beland, L.-P., & Murphy, R. (2016) · Labour Economics · doi:10.1016/j.labeco.2016.04.004 · Cited by 236 · cited 1×
“…al., 2016; Feldstein, 1985), bans on addictive substances (e.g., heroin and other opioids—see Carter & Hall, 2007), bans on cell-phone use in schools (Beland & Murphy, 2016), incentives for energy conservation (Arimura, Li, Newell, & Palmer, 2012; Ito, 2015), speed cameras ( Jones, Sauerzapf, &…”
BackgroundSelf‐monitoring during collegiate studying: An invaluable tool for academic self‐regulation
Zimmerman, B. J., & Paulsen, A. S. (1995) · New Directions for Teaching and Learning · doi:10.1002/tl.37219956305 · Cited by 215
Contemporary cognitive behavior therapy: A review of theory, history, and evidence
Thoma, N., Pilecki, B., & McKay, D. (2015) · Psychodynamic Psychiatry · doi:10.1521/pdps.2015.43.3.423 · Cited by 197 · cited 2×
“As noted above, cognitive therapy is almost always discussed in the context of CBT, which combines cognitive therapy and behavior therapy (Thoma et al., 2015).”
BackgroundLorenzo-Luaces, L., German, R. E., & DeRubeis, R. J. (2015) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2014.12.003 · Cited by 190
Stadler, G., Oettingen, G., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (2009) · American Journal of Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2008.09.021 · Cited by 188
Commitment Devices: Using Initiatives to Change Behavior
Rogers, T., Milkman, K. L., & Volpp, K. G. (2014) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.2014.3485 · Cited by 185
Self-citationRuffault, A., Czernichow, S., Hagger, M. S., Ferrand, M., Erichot, N., Carette, C., Boujut, E., & Flahault, C. (2017) · Obesity Research & Clinical Practice · doi:10.1016/j.orcp.2016.09.002 · Cited by 173
Meta-Synthesis of Health Behavior Change Meta-Analyses
Johnson, B. T., Scott-Sheldon, L. A. J., & Carey, M. P. (2010) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.2008.155200 · Cited by 160
Magen, E., Dweck, C. S., & Gross, J. J. (2008) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02137.x · Cited by 157
Life stress impairs self-control in early adolescence
Duckworth, A. L., Kim, B., & Tsukayama, E. (2013) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00608 · Cited by 139
Self-citationWhat would Batman do? Self‐distancing improves executive function in young children
White, R. E., & Carlson, S. M. (2016) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/desc.12314 · Cited by 130
Behavioral self-control program for Windows: Results of a controlled clinical trial.
Hester, R. K., & Delaney, H. D. (1997) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.65.4.686 · Cited by 117
Promoting integrative bargaining: mental contrasting with implementation intentions
Kirk, D., Oettingen, G., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (2013) · International Journal of Conflict Management · doi:10.1108/10444061311316771 · Cited by 73
Spontaneous Self-Distancing and Adaptive Self-Reflection Across Adolescence
White, R. E., Kross, E., & Duckworth, A. L. (2015) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.12370 · Cited by 63
Self-citationZhang, Q., Wang, C., Zhao, Q., Yang, L., Buschkuehl, M., & Jaeggi, S. M. (2019) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/desc.12748 · Cited by 61
Johnson, E. J., & Goldstein, D. (2003) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1091721 · Cited by 35
Development of a self-distancing task and initial validation of responses
Shepherd, K. A., Coifman, K. G., Matt, L. M., & Fresco, D. M. (2016) · Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1037/pas0000297 · Cited by 27
Cited by
Integrating Models of Self-Regulation
Inzlicht, M., Werner, K. M., Briskin, J. L., & Roberts, B. W. (2021) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-061020-105721 · Cited by 594
Citizens Versus the Internet: Confronting Digital Challenges With Cognitive Tools
Kozyreva, A., Lewandowsky, S., & Hertwig, R. (2020) · Psychological Science in the Public Interest · doi:10.1177/1529100620946707 · Cited by 479
Self-nudging and the citizen choice architect
REIJULA, S., & HERTWIG, R. (2022) · Behavioural Public Policy · doi:10.1017/bpp.2020.5 · Cited by 130
Ericson, K. M., & Laibson, D. (2019) · Handbook of Behavioral Economics: Applications and Foundations 1 · doi:10.1016/bs.hesbe.2018.12.001 · Cited by 125
Self-citationBrevers, D., & Turel, O. (2019) · Journal of Behavioral Addictions · doi:10.1556/2006.8.2019.49 · Cited by 120
Metadata
- Authors
- Duckworth, A. L., Milkman, K. L., & Laibson, D.
- Venue
- Psychological Science in the Public Interest
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2018-12
- Volume
- 19
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 102-129
- ISSN
- 1539-6053 (ISSN-L)
- 1529-1006
- OpenAlex
- W2911774059
- Cited by
- 257
- References
- 79
- FWCI
- 17.68
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
Data sources
Bibliographic data: Semantic Scholar, OpenAlex, Crossref.
Contains information from the Semantic Scholar Academic Graph Datasets, made available under the ODC Attribution License (ODC-BY 1.0).
Semantic Scholar’s data is described in: Kinney, R., et al. (2023). The Semantic Scholar Open Data Platform. arXiv:2301.10140.
