Sleep and the sleep electroencephalogram across the menstrual cycle in young healthy women
Abstract
Cyclic changes in hormones, body temperature, and metabolic rate characterize the menstrual cycle. To investigate whether these changes are associated with changes in sleep and the sleep electroencephalogram (EEG), a total of 138 sleep episodes from 9 women with no premenstrual syndrome symptoms were recorded every second night throughout one ovulatory menstrual cycle and analyzed in relation to menstrual phase. Ovulation and menstrual cycle stage were confirmed by measurements of temperature, urinary LH, and midluteal plasma levels of estrogen and progesterone. No significant variation across the menstrual cycle was observed for subjective ratings of sleep quality and mood as well as for objective measures of total sleep time, sleep efficiency, sleep latency, rapid eye movement sleep latency, and slow wave sleep. In nonrapid eye movement sleep, EEG power density in the 14.25-15.0 hertz band, which corresponds to the upper frequency range of the sleep spindles, exhibited a large variation across the menstrual cycle, with a maximum in the luteal phase. The data show that in healthy young women, sleep spindle frequency activity varies in parallel with core body temperature, whereas homeostatic sleep regulatory mechanisms, as indexed by the time course of EEG slow wave activity are not substantially affected by the menstrual cycle.
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In the first systematic study of sleep EEG across the menstrual cycle in healthy women, there was no menstrual cycle-related change in sleep efficiency, sleep onset latency, slow wave sleep, or wake after sleep onset.
“This study showed no menstrual cycle-related change in SE (%), SOL (min), SWS (%) and wake after sleep onset (WASO; min) [49].”
From Sleep, hormones, and circadian rhythms throughout the menstrual cycle in healthy women and women with premenstrual dysphoric disorder (2010) · cites this paper as [49]
In the first systematic study, non-REM sleep and stage 2 sleep significantly increased in the luteal phase, while REM sleep significantly decreased in the luteal phase.
“Non-REM (NREM) sleep and stage 2 sleep (%) significantly increased in the LP, while REM sleep (% of the NREM-REM sleep cycle) significantly decreased in the LP [49].”
From Sleep, hormones, and circadian rhythms throughout the menstrual cycle in healthy women and women with premenstrual dysphoric disorder (2010) · cites this paper as [49]
The prominent increase in sleep spindle frequency activity during the luteal phase is the most characteristic menstrual cycle-associated sleep change.
“The effects of menstrual phase on quantitative sleep EEG have been investigated by a few groups, yet results indicate a very consistent pattern of findings, making the prominent increase in SFA during the LP the most characteristic menstrual cycle associated sleep change [48, 49, 55]”
From Sleep, hormones, and circadian rhythms throughout the menstrual cycle in healthy women and women with premenstrual dysphoric disorder (2010) · cites this paper as [49]
Driver et al. found that sleep spindle frequency activity was lowest during the follicular phase and reached peak values during the luteal phase.
“Similarly, in the aforementioned study by Driver et al., which tracked sleep changes throughout an entire menstrual cycle in nine healthy women, SFA (here defined as mean power density within the 12.25–15.00 Hz frequency range) was lowest during the FP and reached peak values during the LP [49].”
From Sleep, hormones, and circadian rhythms throughout the menstrual cycle in healthy women and women with premenstrual dysphoric disorder (2010) · cites this paper as [49]
Maximum menstrual phase variation in sleep spindle frequency activity was observed within the 14.25-15.00 Hz band, and slow wave activity was unchanged across the menstrual cycle.
“Maximum menstrual phase variation was observed within the 14.25–15.00 Hz band, and SWA (mean power density within the 0.75–4.50 Hz frequency range), a marker of sleep homeostasis, was unchanged across the menstrual cycle [49].”
From Sleep, hormones, and circadian rhythms throughout the menstrual cycle in healthy women and women with premenstrual dysphoric disorder (2010) · cites this paper as [49]
In healthy women, sleep homeostasis and sleep quality remain stable at different menstrual phases, while sleep architecture shows observable changes.
“These have indicated that while sleep homeostasis [49, 51, 55] and quality [43, 49, 52] remain stable at different menstrual phases, there are observable changes in sleep architecture [49, 51–53]”
From Sleep, hormones, and circadian rhythms throughout the menstrual cycle in healthy women and women with premenstrual dysphoric disorder (2010) · cites this paper as [49]
The luteal-phase-associated increase in sleep spindle frequency activity is most likely a result of neuroactive metabolites of progesterone acting as agonistic modulators of central nervous system GABAA receptors in a benzodiazepine-like manner.
“The LP-associated increase in SFA is most likely a result of the neuroactive metabolites of progesterone acting as agonistic modulators of central nervous system GABAA-receptors in a benzodiazepine-like manner [49, 71].”
From Sleep, hormones, and circadian rhythms throughout the menstrual cycle in healthy women and women with premenstrual dysphoric disorder (2010) · cites this paper as [49]
The most consistently observed menstrual cycle-related change in the sleep profile of healthy women is a reduction of REM sleep.
“The most consistently observed menstrual cycle-related changes in the sleep profile of healthy women are a reduction of REM sleep [49, 51–53, 56], with a maintenance of homeostatic sleep mechanisms throughout the cycle [90], and a robust variation of SFA across the menstrual cycle [48, 49, 55], which increases in association with progesterone during the LP.”
From Sleep, hormones, and circadian rhythms throughout the menstrual cycle in healthy women and women with premenstrual dysphoric disorder (2010) · cites this paper as [49]
There is a robust variation of SFA across the menstrual cycle.
“The most consistently observed menstrual cycle-related changes in the sleep profile of healthy women are a reduction of REM sleep [49, 51–53, 56], with a maintenance of homeostatic sleep mechanisms throughout the cycle [90], and a robust variation of SFA across the menstrual cycle [48, 49, 55], which increases in association with progesterone during the LP.”
From Sleep, hormones, and circadian rhythms throughout the menstrual cycle in healthy women and women with premenstrual dysphoric disorder (2010) · cites this paper as [49]
SFA increases in association with progesterone during the luteal phase.
“The most consistently observed menstrual cycle-related changes in the sleep profile of healthy women are a reduction of REM sleep [49, 51–53, 56], with a maintenance of homeostatic sleep mechanisms throughout the cycle [90], and a robust variation of SFA across the menstrual cycle [48, 49, 55], which increases in association with progesterone during the LP.”
From Sleep, hormones, and circadian rhythms throughout the menstrual cycle in healthy women and women with premenstrual dysphoric disorder (2010) · cites this paper as [49]
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Bódizs, R., Schneider, B., Ujma, P. P., Horváth, C. G., Dresler, M., & Rosenblum, Y. (2024) · Progress in Neurobiology · doi:10.1016/j.pneurobio.2024.102589 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Dynamics of sleep oscillations is coupled to brain temperature on multiple scales
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A Protocol for Comparing Dry and Wet EEG Electrodes During Sleep
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DelRosso, L. M., Chesson, A. L., & Hoque, R. (2014) · Sleep Disorders · doi:10.1155/2014/271802 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Sleep EEG functional connectivity varies with age and sex, but not general intelligence
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Self-citationKoikawa, N., Takami, Y., Kawasaki, Y., Kawana, F., Shiroshita, N., Ogasawara, E., & Kasai, T. (2020) · Journal of Clinical Sleep Medicine · doi:10.5664/jcsm.8692 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Impact of sex steroids and reproductive stage on sleep-dependent memory consolidation in women
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Sleep and Rest Regulation in Young and Old Oestrogen‐Deficient Female Mice
Vyazovskiy, V. V., Kopp, C., Wigger, E., Jones, M. E. E., Simpson, E. R., & Tobler, I. (2006) · Journal of Neuroendocrinology · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2826.2006.01452.x · Cited by 25 · see citing works
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Self-citationOne's sex, sleep, and posttraumatic stress disorder
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- Authors
- Driver, H. S.
- Affiliations
- University of Zurich (CH)
- ORCID
- Driver, H. S.
- Venue
- Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism
- Publisher
- The Endocrine Society
- Published
- 1996-02-01
- Volume
- 81
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 728-735
- ISSN
- 0021-972X (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2031927137
- Cited by
- 314
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 4 · 2025: 7 · 2024: 20 · 2023: 15 · 2022: 13 · 2021: 13 · 2020: 17 · 2019: 14 · 2018: 9 · 2017: 10 · 2016: 11 · 2015: 9 · 2014: 10 · 2013: 18 · 2012: 11
- FWCI
- 5.22
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Open Research (University of Surrey) (submittedVersion)
- Surrey Research Insight Open Access (The University of Surrey) (submittedVersion)
- Zurich Open Repository and Archive (University of Zurich) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation
- International Brain Research Organization
- Schweizerischer Nationalfonds zur Förderung der Wissenschaftlichen Forschung (32574)
- Universität Zürich
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Sleep and Wakefulness Research
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Endocrine and Autonomic Systems › Circadian rhythm and melatonin
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Sleep and related disorders
- Keywords
- menstrual cycle, sleep, sleep EEG, reproductive hormones, luteal phase, follicular phase, estrogen, progesterone, luteinizing hormone, body temperature, energy expenditure, sleep regulation, women
- MeSH terms
- Body Temperature, Electroencephalography, Estradiol, Female, Follicular Phase, Humans, Luteinizing Hormone, Luteal Phase, Menstrual Cycle, Ovulation, Progesterone, Sleep, Sleep, REM, Time Factors
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
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