The DOI matches its Crossref record; 226 of the 229 references it cites were found in a registry or an index, and 2 are not checked yet; none of the 212 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.
Cytokine Research in Depression: Principles, Challenges, and Open Questions
Open accessAbstract
2), pro-inflammatory or anti-inflammatory cytokines of patients with a depressive disorder to those of healthy controls. Additionally, multiple longitudinal studies have investigated cytokine levels during antidepressant treatment. According to the current literature, it seems that peripheral levels of interleukin (IL)-6, IL-10, IL-12, IL-13, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α are elevated and that interferon (IFN)-γ levels are lower in patients with depression compared to healthy controls. However, the overlap of cytokine values between acutely depressed patients, remitted and recovered patients and healthy controls is considerable. Thus, the discriminative power of cytokine concentrations between depressed and non-depressed people is likely weak. Treatment with certain antidepressants appears to decrease peripheral levels of IL-6, IL-10, and TNF-α. However, weight gain-inducing psychopharmacological substances, such as the antidepressant mirtazapine, have been reported to potentially increase the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Even though cytokines are often discussed as biomarkers for depression, they have also been shown to be altered in other psychiatric disorders. Moreover, many environmental, social, psychological, biological, and medical factors are also associated with cytokine changes. Thus, cytokine alterations seem extremely unspecific. The interpretation of the results of these studies remains a challenge because it is unknown which type of cells are most responsible for cytokine changes measured in the blood nor have the main target cells or target tissues been identified. The same cytokine can be produced by multiple cell types, and the same cell can produce various cytokines. Additionally, redundancy, synergy, antagonism, and signaling cascades of cytokine signaling must be considered. Cytokines might not be associated with the diagnosis of depression according to the currently used diagnostic manuals, but rather with specific subtypes of depression, or with depressive symptoms across different psychiatric diagnoses. Therefore, the currently available diagnostic systems may not be the ideal starting point for psychiatric cytokine research.
Checked 2026-10-06 · 2 references not checked yet
Overview
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
This narrative review explains cytokine biology and critically assesses cytokine research in depression, concluding that peripheral cytokine alterations are statistically associated with depression but too overlapping and unspecific to serve as individual biomarkers. It argues that current diagnostic categories may be a poor starting point for psychiatric cytokine research.
Key findings
- Meta-analytic evidence cited by the review indicates that patients with depression have elevated serum/plasma IL-6, IL-10, IL-12, IL-13, and TNF-α, and lower IFN-γ, compared with healthy controls; however, cytokine values overlap considerably between depressed, remitted/recovered, and healthy individuals.
- A cited meta-analysis of 45 longitudinal studies and more than 1,500 patients found that antidepressant treatment overall decreases peripheral IL-6, IL-10, and TNF-α, but the review notes that reductions in peripheral inflammation were not shown to be associated with antidepressant treatment response.
- Cytokine alterations are not specific to depression: elevated TNF-α has also been found in PTSD, anorexia nervosa, and acute relapse of schizophrenia, and many environmental, social, psychological, biological, and medical factors are associated with cytokine changes.
- In one cited study, mean TNF-α serum concentrations were 50.35 ± 78.01 pg/ml in depressed patients versus 33.80 ± 46.17 pg/ml in healthy controls, illustrating substantial within-group variation and overlapping ranges despite significant group differences.
Methods
- Narrative review; the authors did not apply strict selection criteria, instead selecting articles based on how comprehensive, innovative, clearly written, and informative they were for in-depth understanding and critical debate.
- Included original research, reviews, book chapters, and case reports; for the section on cytokine alterations in depression and other psychiatric disorders, they strictly included only the latest meta-analysis on cytokine levels for each diagnosis in the text and Table 2.
- The review synthesizes literature on cytokine biology, immune-brain signaling, cytokine alterations in depression and other psychiatric disorders, risk factors, confounders, and antidepressant/psychotherapy effects.
Limitations
- Stated: the review is narrative and did not use strict selection criteria; cytokine research shows conflicting results and high variance; it is often unclear which cells produce measured cytokines or which target cells/tissues are involved; cytokine alterations are extremely unspecific; current diagnostic systems may not be ideal for psychiatric cytokine research; few studies have measured cytokines in cerebrospinal fluid; and there is not enough literature to draw firm conclusions about the influence of certain antidepressants on peripheral cytokine levels in vivo.
- Evident from the text: as a narrative review, it lacks a systematic search strategy, formal quality appraisal, and quantitative synthesis, so its conclusions depend on selected literature and cited meta-analyses rather than a reproducible systematic review process.
Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.
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Claims the paper makes
0 of 212 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“peripheral levels of interleukin (IL)-6, IL-10, IL-12, IL-13, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α are elevated”
- Also stated in: § Cytokine Alterations in Patients With Affective Disorders · plain
“patients with depression have elevated serum or plasma concentrations of IL-6, IL-10, IL-12, IL-13, IL-18, TNF-α, and its receptor soluble TNFR2 compared to healthy controls”
§ Cytokine Research in Depression: Principles, Challenges, and Open Questions > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [2] Köhler, 2017, Peripheral alterations in cytokine and chemokine levels after antidepressant drug treatment for major depressive disorder: systematic review and meta-analysis, Mol Neurobiol. source
- Not checked yetcites [33] Schmidt, 2014, Cytokine levels in depressed and non-depressed subjects, and masking effects of obesity, J Psychiatr Res. source
- Not checked yetcites [61] Howren, 2009, Associations of depression with C-reactive protein, IL-1, and IL-6: a meta-analysis, Psychosomatic Med. source
- Not checked yetcites [62] Haase, 2015, Die Regulation des Immunsystems und immunprivilegierte Organe source
- Not checked yetcites [63] Breitbart, 2013, Depression, cytokines, and pancreatic cancer, Psycho Oncol. source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Also stated in: § Cytokine Alterations in Patients With Affective Disorders · plain
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“peripheral levels of interleukin (IL)-6, IL-10, IL-12, IL-13, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α are elevated”
- Also stated in: § Cytokine Alterations in Patients With Affective Disorders · plain
“patients with depression have elevated serum or plasma concentrations of IL-6, IL-10, IL-12, IL-13, IL-18, TNF-α, and its receptor soluble TNFR2 compared to healthy controls”
§ Cytokine Research in Depression: Principles, Challenges, and Open Questions > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [2] Köhler, 2017, Peripheral alterations in cytokine and chemokine levels after antidepressant drug treatment for major depressive disorder: systematic review and meta-analysis, Mol Neurobiol. source
- Not checked yetcites [33] Schmidt, 2014, Cytokine levels in depressed and non-depressed subjects, and masking effects of obesity, J Psychiatr Res. source
- Not checked yetcites [61] Howren, 2009, Associations of depression with C-reactive protein, IL-1, and IL-6: a meta-analysis, Psychosomatic Med. source
- Not checked yetcites [62] Haase, 2015, Die Regulation des Immunsystems und immunprivilegierte Organe source
- Not checked yetcites [63] Breitbart, 2013, Depression, cytokines, and pancreatic cancer, Psycho Oncol. source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Also stated in: § Cytokine Alterations in Patients With Affective Disorders · plain
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“interferon (IFN)-γ levels are lower in patients with depression compared to healthy controls”
- Also stated in: § Cytokine Alterations in Patients With Affective Disorders · plain
“whereas IFN-γ levels are lower in patients with depression than healthy controls (2, 33, 61–63)”
§ Cytokine Research in Depression: Principles, Challenges, and Open Questions > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [2] Köhler, 2017, Peripheral alterations in cytokine and chemokine levels after antidepressant drug treatment for major depressive disorder: systematic review and meta-analysis, Mol Neurobiol. source
- Not checked yetcites [33] Schmidt, 2014, Cytokine levels in depressed and non-depressed subjects, and masking effects of obesity, J Psychiatr Res. source
- Not checked yetcites [61] Howren, 2009, Associations of depression with C-reactive protein, IL-1, and IL-6: a meta-analysis, Psychosomatic Med. source
- Not checked yetcites [62] Haase, 2015, Die Regulation des Immunsystems und immunprivilegierte Organe source
- Not checked yetcites [63] Breitbart, 2013, Depression, cytokines, and pancreatic cancer, Psycho Oncol. source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Also stated in: § Cytokine Alterations in Patients With Affective Disorders · plain
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“peripheral levels of interleukin (IL)-6, IL-10, IL-12, IL-13, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α are elevated”
- Also stated in: § Cytokine Alterations in Patients With Affective Disorders · plain
“patients with depression have elevated serum or plasma concentrations of IL-6, IL-10, IL-12, IL-13, IL-18, TNF-α, and its receptor soluble TNFR2 compared to healthy controls”
§ Cytokine Research in Depression: Principles, Challenges, and Open Questions > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [2] Köhler, 2017, Peripheral alterations in cytokine and chemokine levels after antidepressant drug treatment for major depressive disorder: systematic review and meta-analysis, Mol Neurobiol. source
- Not checked yetcites [33] Schmidt, 2014, Cytokine levels in depressed and non-depressed subjects, and masking effects of obesity, J Psychiatr Res. source
- Not checked yetcites [61] Howren, 2009, Associations of depression with C-reactive protein, IL-1, and IL-6: a meta-analysis, Psychosomatic Med. source
- Not checked yetcites [62] Haase, 2015, Die Regulation des Immunsystems und immunprivilegierte Organe source
- Not checked yetcites [63] Breitbart, 2013, Depression, cytokines, and pancreatic cancer, Psycho Oncol. source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes- Also stated in: § Cytokine Alterations in Patients With Affective Disorders · plain
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“peripheral levels of interleukin (IL)-6, IL-10, IL-12, IL-13, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α are elevated”
- Also stated in: § Cytokine Alterations in Patients With Affective Disorders · plain
“patients with depression have elevated serum or plasma concentrations of IL-6, IL-10, IL-12, IL-13, IL-18, TNF-α, and its receptor soluble TNFR2 compared to healthy controls”
§ Cytokine Research in Depression: Principles, Challenges, and Open Questions > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [2] Köhler, 2017, Peripheral alterations in cytokine and chemokine levels after antidepressant drug treatment for major depressive disorder: systematic review and meta-analysis, Mol Neurobiol. source
- Not checked yetcites [33] Schmidt, 2014, Cytokine levels in depressed and non-depressed subjects, and masking effects of obesity, J Psychiatr Res. source
- Not checked yetcites [61] Howren, 2009, Associations of depression with C-reactive protein, IL-1, and IL-6: a meta-analysis, Psychosomatic Med. source
- Not checked yetcites [62] Haase, 2015, Die Regulation des Immunsystems und immunprivilegierte Organe source
- Not checked yetcites [63] Breitbart, 2013, Depression, cytokines, and pancreatic cancer, Psycho Oncol. source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Also stated in: § Cytokine Alterations in Patients With Affective Disorders · plain
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“peripheral levels of interleukin (IL)-6, IL-10, IL-12, IL-13, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α are elevated”
- Also stated in: § Cytokine Alterations in Patients With Affective Disorders · plain
“patients with depression have elevated serum or plasma concentrations of IL-6, IL-10, IL-12, IL-13, IL-18, TNF-α, and its receptor soluble TNFR2 compared to healthy controls”
§ Cytokine Research in Depression: Principles, Challenges, and Open Questions > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [2] Köhler, 2017, Peripheral alterations in cytokine and chemokine levels after antidepressant drug treatment for major depressive disorder: systematic review and meta-analysis, Mol Neurobiol. source
- Not checked yetcites [33] Schmidt, 2014, Cytokine levels in depressed and non-depressed subjects, and masking effects of obesity, J Psychiatr Res. source
- Not checked yetcites [61] Howren, 2009, Associations of depression with C-reactive protein, IL-1, and IL-6: a meta-analysis, Psychosomatic Med. source
- Not checked yetcites [62] Haase, 2015, Die Regulation des Immunsystems und immunprivilegierte Organe source
- Not checked yetcites [63] Breitbart, 2013, Depression, cytokines, and pancreatic cancer, Psycho Oncol. source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Also stated in: § Cytokine Alterations in Patients With Affective Disorders · plain
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Cytokines have been implicated in the pathology of depression.”
- Also stated in: § Influence on Neurotransmitter Metabolism and Signaling · plain
“Given that peripheral production of cytokines has been associated with depression (2, 81)”
§ Cytokine Research in Depression: Principles, Challenges, and Open Questions > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [2] Köhler, 2017, Peripheral alterations in cytokine and chemokine levels after antidepressant drug treatment for major depressive disorder: systematic review and meta-analysis, Mol Neurobiol. source
- Not checked yetcites [81] Lichtblau, 2013, Cytokines as biomarkers in depressive disorder: current standing and prospects, Int Rev Psychiatry source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Also stated in: § Influence on Neurotransmitter Metabolism and Signaling · plain
In the paper
“such positive results have not been obtained by all studies”
§ Cytokine Research in Depression: Principles, Challenges, and Open Questions > Introduction > Difficulties of Cytokine Research in Psychiatry
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [2] Köhler, 2017, Peripheral alterations in cytokine and chemokine levels after antidepressant drug treatment for major depressive disorder: systematic review and meta-analysis, Mol Neurobiol. source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesNone of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Results of cytokine research which are partly contradicting and often difficult to interpret have also been obtained in post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (34–36) and eating disorders (37).”
§ Cytokine Research in Depression: Principles, Challenges, and Open Questions > Introduction > Difficulties of Cytokine Research in Psychiatry
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [34] Hussein, 2017, A systematic review of tumor necoris factor-α in post-traumatic stress disorder: evidence from human and animal studies, Psychiatr Danub. source
- Not checked yetcites [35] Waheed, 2018, A systematic review of interleukin-1β in post-traumatic stress disorder: evidence from human and animal studies, J Interfer Cytokine Res. source
- Not checked yetcites [36] Passos, 2015, Inflammatory markers in post-traumatic stress disorder: a systematic review, meta-analysis, and meta-regression, Lancet Psychiatry source
- Not checked yetcites [37] Dalton, 2018, A meta-analysis of cytokine concentrations in eating disorders, J Psychiatr Res. source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“Treatment with certain antidepressants appears to decrease peripheral levels of IL-6, IL-10, and TNF-α.”
§ Cytokine Research in Depression: Principles, Challenges, and Open Questions > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [2] Köhler, 2017, Peripheral alterations in cytokine and chemokine levels after antidepressant drug treatment for major depressive disorder: systematic review and meta-analysis, Mol Neurobiol. source
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes
- It may state two separate claims as one. 30
- Probably not a substantial claim. 9
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Even though these categories are often referred to in the psychoimmunological literature, these are neither distinct nor generally accepted categories for the classification of cytokines.”
§ Cytokine Research in Depression: Principles, Challenges, and Open Questions > Cytokines Within the Immune System > Types of Cytokines According to Their Immunological Function
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Cytokines might not be associated with the diagnosis of depression according to the currently used diagnostic manuals, but rather with specific subtypes of depression, or with depressive symptoms across different psychiatric diagnoses.”
§ Cytokine Research in Depression: Principles, Challenges, and Open Questions > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The same cytokine can be produced by multiple cell types.”
- Also stated in: § Cytokine Release · plain
“The same cytokine can be produced by multiple cell types. For instance, TNF-α is released by white blood cells, the endothelium, fat cells and other cells (46).”
§ Cytokine Research in Depression: Principles, Challenges, and Open Questions > Characteristics of cytokine signaling > Cytokine Release
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [46] Perskidskii, 1992, Biological manifestations of the tumor necrosis factor effect and its role in the pathogenesis of various diseases, Arkhiv Patologii
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Also stated in: § Cytokine Release · plain
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This is a narrative review; therefore, we did not apply strict selection criteria for the inclusion of certain articles.”
§ Cytokine Research in Depression: Principles, Challenges, and Open Questions > Introduction > Methods of This Review Article
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Cytokine signaling shows redundancy, because two or more cytokines can have a similar function.”
§ Cytokine Research in Depression: Principles, Challenges, and Open Questions > Characteristics of cytokine signaling > Cytokine Effects
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [53] Bruserud, 1992, IL2- and IL4-dependent proliferation of T-cell clones derived early after allogeneic bone marrow transplantation: Studies of patients with chronic myelogenous leukaemia, Eur J Haematol. source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Cytokine research in psychiatry faces several difficulties, such as conflicting results and high variance of cytokine values within samples.”
§ Cytokine Research in Depression: Principles, Challenges, and Open Questions > Introduction > Difficulties of Cytokine Research in Psychiatry
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Additionally, cytokine cascades play a significant role in cytokine signaling which means that an activation of one cytokine produced by one cell type induces cytokine production by other cell types.”
§ Cytokine Research in Depression: Principles, Challenges, and Open Questions > Characteristics of cytokine signaling > Cytokine Effects
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [60] Lorentz, 2001, Regulation of human intestinal mast cells by stem cell factor and IL-4, Immunol Rev. source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Another typical phenomenon in cytokine signaling is synergy which is a strong combined effect of 2 cytokines when acting together”
§ Cytokine Research in Depression: Principles, Challenges, and Open Questions > Characteristics of cytokine signaling > Cytokine Effects
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [47] Del Prete, 1992, Human Th1 and Th2 lymphocytes: their role in the pathophysiology of atopy, Allergy source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Regarding the section on cytokine alterations in depression and other psychiatric disorders, we strictly included only the latest meta-analysis on cytokine levels for each diagnosis in the text and in Table 2.”
§ Cytokine Research in Depression: Principles, Challenges, and Open Questions > Introduction > Methods of This Review Article
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Most of the studies measure serum or plasma cytokine levels, but it has often been discussed whether these results reflect the situation in the brain (31).”
§ Cytokine Research in Depression: Principles, Challenges, and Open Questions > Introduction > Difficulties of Cytokine Research in Psychiatry
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [31] Capuron, 2011, Immune system to brain signaling: neuropsychopharmacological implications, Pharmacol Ther. source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“One must also take into account that cytokines can have different effects on different cells and thus may have pro- but also anti-inflammatory properties.”
§ Cytokine Research in Depression: Principles, Challenges, and Open Questions > Cytokines Within the Immune System > Types of Cytokines According to Their Immunological Function
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [78] de Waal Malefyt, 1993, Effects of IL-13 on phenotype, cytokine production, and cytotoxic function of human monocytes. Comparison with IL-4 and modulation by IFN-gamma or IL-10, J Immunol. source
- Not checked yetcites [79] Tilg, 1996, Interferon-alpha and its effects on the cytokine cascade: a pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokine, Leukem Lymphoma source
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“For example, elevated levels of TNF-α have also been found in PTSD studies (34), in patients with anorexia nervosa (37) and in patients with acute relapse of schizophrenia (31, 38).”
§ Cytokine Research in Depression: Principles, Challenges, and Open Questions > Cytokine Alterations in Depression and Other Psychiatric Disorders > Cytokine Alterations in Patients With Psychiatric Disorders in General
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [34] Hussein, 2017, A systematic review of tumor necoris factor-α in post-traumatic stress disorder: evidence from human and animal studies, Psychiatr Danub. source
- Not checked yetcites [37] Dalton, 2018, A meta-analysis of cytokine concentrations in eating disorders, J Psychiatr Res. source
- Not checked yetcites [31] Capuron, 2011, Immune system to brain signaling: neuropsychopharmacological implications, Pharmacol Ther. source
- Not checked yetcites [38] Goldsmith, 2016, A meta-analysis of blood cytokine network alterations in psychiatric patients: comparisons between schizophrenia, bipolar disorder and depression, Mol Psychiatry source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“all of which have been found to be elevated in patients with major depression (99–101)”
§ Cytokine Research in Depression: Principles, Challenges, and Open Questions > The Influence of Cytokines on the Brain > Influence on Neuroendocrine Signaling
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [99] Besedovsky, 1996, Immune-neuro-endocrine interactions: facts and hypotheses, Endocr Rev. source
- Not checked yetcites [100] Pariante, 2001, Glucocorticoid receptors in major depression: relevance to pathophysiology and treatment, Biol Psychiatry source
- Not checked yetcites [101] Pace, 2007, Cytokine-effects on glucocorticoid receptor function: Relevance to glucocorticoid resistance and the pathophysiology and treatment of major depression, Brain Behav Immun. source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This range indicates that, despite the significant difference between the means of both groups, depressed participants and healthy controls did not have distinct TNF-α levels, but rather overlapping ranges of TNF-α levels.”
§ Cytokine Research in Depression: Principles, Challenges, and Open Questions > Cytokine Alterations in Depression and Other Psychiatric Disorders > Cytokine Alterations in Patients With Psychiatric Disorders in General
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“For example, in a paper published by Schmidt et al. (33), mean TNF-α serum concentrations of depressed patients were 50.35 pg/ml with a standard deviation of 78.01 pg/ml, whereas mean TNF-α levels of healthy controls were 33.80 ± 46.17 pg/ml.”
§ Cytokine Research in Depression: Principles, Challenges, and Open Questions > Cytokine Alterations in Depression and Other Psychiatric Disorders > Cytokine Alterations in Patients With Psychiatric Disorders in General
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [33] Schmidt, 2014, Cytokine levels in depressed and non-depressed subjects, and masking effects of obesity, J Psychiatr Res. source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Molecules produced by microbiota, e.g. LPS, can induce cytokine production (198), and lead to depressive symptoms (199).”
§ Cytokine Research in Depression: Principles, Challenges, and Open Questions > Possible Reasons for Cytokine Alterations > Food and the Microbiome
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [198] Bromberg, 2018, Gut microbiota-dependent modulation of innate immunity and lymph node remodeling affects cardiac allograft outcomes, JCI Insight source
- Not checked yetcites [199] Reichenberg, 2001, Cytokine-associated emotional and cognitive disturbances in humans, Arch Gen Psychiatry source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Many physical disorders have been reported to increase the risk for developing a depressive disorder (125) and to activate the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines.”
§ Cytokine Research in Depression: Principles, Challenges, and Open Questions > Possible Reasons for Cytokine Alterations > Physical Disorders and Their Therapy
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [125] Himmerich, 2014, Prävention psychischer Erkrankungen am Beispiel der Depression
- Not checked yetcites [156] Rose-John, 2017, The role of IL-6 in host defence against infections: immunobiology and clinical implications, Nat Rev Rheumatol. source
- Not checked yetcites [157] Arango-Duque, 2014, Macrophage cytokines: involvement in immunity and infectious diseases, Front Immunol. source
- Not checked yetcites [158] Li, 2017, Innate lymphoid cell-derived cytokines in autoimmune diseases, J Autoimmun. source
- Not checked yetcites [159] Kuwabara, 2017, The Role of IL-17 and related cytokines in inflammatory autoimmune diseases, Mediator Inflamm. source
- Not checked yetcites [160] Igaz, 2000, Cytokines in diseases of the endocrine system, Cell Biol Int. source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Vitamin deficiency, e.g., vitamin D deficiency, has also been shown to increase pro-inflammatory cytokine production and to lead to depressive symptoms (133, 134).”
§ Cytokine Research in Depression: Principles, Challenges, and Open Questions > Possible Reasons for Cytokine Alterations > Food and the Microbiome
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [133] Grudet, 2014, Suicidal patients are deficient in vitamin D, associated with a pro-inflammatory status in the blood, Psychoneuroendocrinology source
- Not checked yetcites [134] Amini, 2018, Postpartum depression and vitamin D: a systematic review, Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The results of the Whitehall II cohort study in which British civil workers were monitored for CRP, IL-6 and cognitive symptoms of depression from 1991 to 2004 (baseline and follow-up) suggest that the inflammatory markers measured predicted symptoms of depression at follow-up, but not the other way around (120).”
§ Cytokine Research in Depression: Principles, Challenges, and Open Questions > Possible Reasons for Cytokine Alterations > Direction of Causality
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [120] Gimeno, 2008, Associations of C-reactive protein and interleukin-6 with cognitive symptoms of depression: 12-year follow-up of the Whitehall II study, Psychological Med. source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“One has to keep in mind, however, that alcohol misuse (148), obesity (163) are not only confounding factors, but also risk factors for the development of depression.”
§ Cytokine Research in Depression: Principles, Challenges, and Open Questions > Possible Reasons for Cytokine Alterations > Confounding Factors
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [148] Heberlein, 2014, TNF-α and IL-6 serum levels: neurobiological markers of alcohol consumption in alcohol-dependent patients?, Alcohol source
- Not checked yetcites [163] Thormann, 2013, Obesity and depression: an overview on the complex interactions of two diseases, Fortschr Neurol Psychiatr. source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“However, it must be mentioned that the observation that inflammatory diseases can lead to psychiatric disorders, such as depression, is not an achievement of recent decades of research: a meta-analytic scientific approach to such observations had already been published by Emil Kraepelin in 1881 and 1882 (123).”
§ Cytokine Research in Depression: Principles, Challenges, and Open Questions > Possible Reasons for Cytokine Alterations > Direction of Causality
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [123] Steinberg, 2013, Emil Kraepelin's habilitation and his thesis: a pioneer work for modern systematic reviews, psychoimmunological research and categories of psychiatric diseases, World J Biol Psychiatry source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Psychiatrically relevant genes include, for example, those in the human leukocyte antigen (HLA) gene complex or rare copy number variants important for immune function (119).”
§ Cytokine Research in Depression: Principles, Challenges, and Open Questions > Possible Reasons for Cytokine Alterations > Direction of Causality
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [119] Piliero, 2003, T-cell homeostasis in humans with thymic hypoplasia due to chromosome 22q11, Blood source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Therefore, foods with a high ratio of ω3/ω6 fatty acids can dampen inflammatory processes and thus potentially prevent or ameliorate depressive symptoms (135).”
§ Cytokine Research in Depression: Principles, Challenges, and Open Questions > Possible Reasons for Cytokine Alterations > Food and the Microbiome
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [135] Husted, 2016, The importance of n-6/n-3 fatty acids ratio in the major depressive disorder source
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Gut microbes have, for example, been found to be capable of producing certain neurotransmitters and of influencing the central neurochemistry of the brain and thus human behavior (136).”
§ Cytokine Research in Depression: Principles, Challenges, and Open Questions > Possible Reasons for Cytokine Alterations > Food and the Microbiome
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [136] Dinan, 2017, The microbiome-gut-brain axis in health and disease, Gastroenterol Clin North Am. source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Adipose tissue is known to accumulate and activate macrophages and lymphocytes which secrete inflammatory factors (186, 187).”
§ Cytokine Research in Depression: Principles, Challenges, and Open Questions > Possible Reasons for Cytokine Alterations > Confounding Factors
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [186] Bastard, 1999, Evidence for a link between adipose tissue interleukin-6 content and serum C-reactive protein concentrations in obese subjects, Circulation source
- Not checked yetcites [187] Wellen, 2003, Obesity-induced inflammatory changes in adipose tissue, J Clin Invest. source
Strength:boosted· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, one has to take into account that these are results comparing means of groups. There is huge overlap of the distributions of cytokine levels of depressed patients and healthy controls”
§ Cytokine Research in Depression: Principles, Challenges, and Open Questions > Discussion > Cytokines as Potential Biomarkers of Depression
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This might be a reason for limited specificity of cytokines as biomarkers for a certain psychiatric diagnosis, because the mentioned cytokine levels are not only elevated in depression, but also in other psychiatric disorders (see Table 2).”
§ Cytokine Research in Depression: Principles, Challenges, and Open Questions > Discussion > Challenges in Regard to the Current Diagnostic Criteria
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Shortly after the discovery of the first cytokine, IFN-α (12), it became clear that this cytokine was able to influence immunological processes in the brain even when peripherally administered (17, 18) and that it can be produced by cells within the brain (18).”
§ Cytokine Research in Depression: Principles, Challenges, and Open Questions > Discussion > Historical Considerations
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [12] Isaacs, 1957, Virus interference. I. the interferon, Proc Royal Soc B Biol Sci. source
- Not checked yetcites [17] Hitchcock, 1960, Protection of mice against the lethal action of an encephalitis virus, BMJ source
- Not checked yetcites [18] Hitchcock, 1961, The production of interferon in brains of mice infected with an arthropod-borne virus, Virology source
Strength:boosted· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“As cytokine signaling often shows redundancy (53–55), synergy (47), antagonistic effects (56–59) or signaling cascades (60), it seems advisable to take all cytokines that work together or against each other into account and thus measure a whole range instead of a single cytokine.”
§ Cytokine Research in Depression: Principles, Challenges, and Open Questions > Discussion > Difficulties in Interpreting the Results of Cytokine Research
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [53] Bruserud, 1992, IL2- and IL4-dependent proliferation of T-cell clones derived early after allogeneic bone marrow transplantation: Studies of patients with chronic myelogenous leukaemia, Eur J Haematol. source
- Not checked yetcites [54] Boraschi, 1985, Arachidonic acid metabolism in macrophages: regulation by interferons and interleukin 1, Int J Immunopharmacol. source
- Not checked yetcites [55] Munk, 1995, Functions of T-cell subsets and cytokines in mycobacterial infections, Eur Respir J Suppl.
- Not checked yetcites [47] Del Prete, 1992, Human Th1 and Th2 lymphocytes: their role in the pathophysiology of atopy, Allergy source
- Not checked yetcites [56] Georas, 2005, T-helper cell type-2 regulation in allergic disease, Eur Respir J. source
- Not checked yetcites [57] Ito, 2005, TSLP-activated dendritic cells induce an inflammatory T helper type 2 cell response through OX40 ligand, J Exp Med. source
- Not checked yetcites [58] Kane, 2015, Refractory asthma - beyond step 5, the role of new and emerging adjuvant therapies, Chronic Respir Dis. source
- Not checked yetcites [59] Krumm, 2014, Structural biology of the IL-1 superfamily: key cytokines in the regulation of immune and inflammatory responses, Protein Sci. source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Whereas, mirtazapine induced a significant increase in the plasma levels of TNF-α and both soluble TNF receptors, venlafaxine did not alter plasma levels of TNF-α, or soluble TNF receptors significantly (201).”
- Also stated in: § The Influence of Antidepressants on Cytokine Production · plain
“These findings that mirtazapine increases circulating TNF-α levels were supported by Kast et al. (202).”
§ Cytokine Research in Depression: Principles, Challenges, and Open Questions > Cytokine Changes During Treatment for Depression > The Influence of Antidepressants on Cytokine Production
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [201] Kraus, 2002, Body weight, the tumor necrosis factor system, and leptin production during treatment with mirtazapine or venlafaxine, Pharmacopsychiatry source
- Not checked yetcites [202] Kast, 2003, Anti- and pro-inflammatory considerations in antidepressant use during medical illness: bupropion lowers and mirtazapine increases circulating tumor necrosis factor-alpha levels, General Hosp Psychiatry source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § The Influence of Antidepressants on Cytokine Production · plain
In the paper
“The close relationship between inflammatory processes and psychiatric symptoms has been scientifically investigated since the 19th century (123).”
§ Cytokine Research in Depression: Principles, Challenges, and Open Questions > Discussion > Historical Considerations
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [123] Steinberg, 2013, Emil Kraepelin's habilitation and his thesis: a pioneer work for modern systematic reviews, psychoimmunological research and categories of psychiatric diseases, World J Biol Psychiatry source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“There are many immunologically important cytokines like IL-21 (65) and IL-22 (66) which have not been extensively researched in psychiatric samples yet, even though the first preliminary studies have revealed promising results (67, 69).”
§ Cytokine Research in Depression: Principles, Challenges, and Open Questions > Discussion > Future Perspectives on Cytokines as Biomarkers for Depression
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [65] Leonard, 2016, IL-21 Signaling in immunity, F1000Res. source
- Not checked yetcites [66] Alabbas, 2018, The role of IL-22 in the resolution of sterile and nonsterile inflammation, Clin Transl Immunol. source
- Not checked yetcites [67] Juncal-Ruiz, 2018, Comparison of the anti-inflammatory effect of aripiprazole and risperidone in 75 drug-naïve first episode psychosis individuals: A 3 months randomized study, Schizophr Res. source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The in vitro literature on antidepressants suggest that some antidepressants, such as clomipramine and fluoxetine, decrease IL-6, IFN-γ, and TNF-α, whilst others like mirtazapine and venlafaxine tend to increase their levels (207).”
§ Cytokine Research in Depression: Principles, Challenges, and Open Questions > Cytokine Changes During Treatment for Depression > The Influence of Antidepressants on Cytokine Production
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [207] Baumeister, 2016, Effects of psychotropic drugs on inflammation: consequence or mediator of therapeutic effects in psychiatric treatment?, Psychopharmacology source
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Therefore, if we measure a specific cytokine like TNF-α in the serum or plasma, it is unclear from which cells or which organ it is derived and where this cytokine will exert its effect, as one cytokine can have different effects on different cell types (10).”
§ Cytokine Research in Depression: Principles, Challenges, and Open Questions > Discussion > Difficulties in Interpreting the Results of Cytokine Research
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [10] Tracey, 1992, Tumor necrosis factor and regulation of metabolism in infection: role of systemic versus tissue levels, Exp Biol Med. source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Some of these mood stabilizers, for example lithium and carbamazepine, have also been shown to lead to weight gain as well as an increase in pro-inflammatory cytokine levels (206).”
§ Cytokine Research in Depression: Principles, Challenges, and Open Questions > Cytokine Changes During Treatment for Depression > The Influence of Antidepressants on Cytokine Production
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [206] Himmerich, 2005, Plasma levels of leptin and endogenous immune modulators during treatment with carbamazepine or lithium, Psychopharmacology source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“As peripheral levels of IL-6, IL-10, IL-12, IL13, and TNF-α have been shown to be significantly elevated and IFN-γ plasma concentrations significantly lower in patients with depression compared to healthy controls in meta-analytic research (2), one could think that cytokines qualify as a biomarker of depression.”
§ Cytokine Research in Depression: Principles, Challenges, and Open Questions > Discussion > Cytokines as Potential Biomarkers of Depression
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [2] Köhler, 2017, Peripheral alterations in cytokine and chemokine levels after antidepressant drug treatment for major depressive disorder: systematic review and meta-analysis, Mol Neurobiol. source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Cytokine levels are often researched and interpreted in isolation from their origin in terms of the specific cell type and the particular tissue they are originating from, even though changes in specific cytokine-producing immune cells like Treg cells have been reported in depression (213) and during antidepressant therapy (214).”
§ Cytokine Research in Depression: Principles, Challenges, and Open Questions > Discussion > Future Perspectives on Cytokines as Biomarkers for Depression
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [213] Li, 2010, Altered expression of CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells and its 5-HT1a receptor in patients with major depression disorder, J Affect Disord. source
- Not checked yetcites [214] Himmerich, 2010, Regulatory T cells increased while IL-1β decreased during antidepressant therapy, J Psychiatr Res. source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
The paper relies on this without support.
Both the obese and the elderly exhibit behavioral symptoms such as depression and cognitive dysfunction at an increased rate compared to the general population.
“Both the obese and the elderly exhibit behavioral symptoms such as depression and cognitive dysfunction at an increased rate compared to the general population.”
The paper relies on this without support.
People with depression exhibit heterogeneous sets of symptoms.
“People with depression exhibit heterogeneous sets of symptoms.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
Cytokine concentrations in the cerebrospinal fluid might better reflect cytokine signaling in the brain than cytokine levels in the serum or plasma.
“even though one would assume that cytokine concentrations in the cerebrospinal fluid might better reflect cytokine signaling in the brain than cytokine levels in the serum or plasma.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“Growing evidence suggests that pro-inflammatory cytokines contribute to the pathogenesis of psychiatric diseases such as depression [137,138]”
From Nrf2 and Oxidative Stress: A General Overview of Mechanisms and Implications in Human Disease (2022) · cites this paper as [138]
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Flagged first, then by citations
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Research works printed but not linked: 2
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- Weschenfelder, 2012, The influence of cytokines on wakefulness regulation: clinical relevance, mechanisms and methodological problems, Psychiatr Danub., 24, 112
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Metadata
- Authors
- Himmerich, H., Patsalos, O., Lichtblau, N., Ibrahim, M. A. A., & Dalton, B.
- Affiliations
- King's College London (GB)
- Maidstone and Tunbridge Wells NHS Trust (GB)
- Kings Health Partners (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Himmerich, Hubertus
- Venue
- Frontiers in Psychiatry
- Publisher
- Frontiers Media SA
- Published
- 2019-02-07
- Volume
- 10
- Pages
- 30-30
- ISSN
- 1664-0640 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC6374304
- OpenAlex
- W2912456649
- Cited by
- 313
- References
- 229
- Citations by year
- 2026: 15 · 2025: 30 · 2024: 42 · 2023: 85 · 2022: 45 · 2021: 52 · 2020: 35 · 2019: 8
- FWCI
- 2.16
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Frontiers in Psychiatry (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Research Portal (King's College London) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust
- King's College London
- Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King’s College London
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Biological Psychiatry › Tryptophan and brain disorders
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Pharmacology (medical) › Treatment of Major Depression
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Behavioral Neuroscience › Stress Responses and Cortisol
- Keywords
- depression, cytokines, inflammatory cytokines, anti-inflammatory cytokines, interleukin-6, IL-10, TNF-α, interferon-gamma, antidepressant treatment, mirtazapine, weight gain, biomarkers, cytokine signaling, depression subtypes
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