The impact of visitors on non-primate species in zoos: a quantitative review
Open accessAbstract
Visitors are a prominent feature in the lives of zoo animals, and their presence can cause a range of impacts on zoo animals (typically classed as positive, negative or neutral impacts), commonly referred to as the ‘visitor effect’. This paper quantitatively collates the literature on the visitor effect in non-primate species, investigates the types of measures used to assess impacts of visitors on animals and considers whether impacts vary across non-primate species in zoos. In total, there were 105 papers which had investigated the impact of zoo visitors on 252 non-primate species/species groups. There has been a steady increase in visitor effect research in zoos since 2012 and this body of work incorporates species from avian (28% study species), reptilian (9%), amphibian (2%), fish (4%) and invertebrate taxa (1%). However, there is still a bias towards mammalian species (56%). The response to visitors varied across taxa. Amphibians responded negatively to visitors more frequently than would be expected by chance (p < 0.05), birds responded neutrally more frequently than would be expected by chance (p < 0.05) and fish responded neutrally and ‘unknown’ more frequently than would be expected by chance (p < 0.05). This review highlighted a number of animal-based metrics which have been used to assess the impacts of visitors on animals, with measures used varying across taxa. Moving forwards, it is recommended that moving forwards researchers incorporate a suite of measures, incorporating those which are meaningful in terms of being representative of individual animal experiences and animal welfare, collected in a manner which should capture those metrics accurately.
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Enclosure design may reduce the negative impact of zoo visitors on elephants because of the necessity of keeping a safe distance between visitors and elephants.
“however, they noted that enclosure design may reduce the negative impact of zoo visitors on elephants because of the necessity of keeping a safe distance between visitors and elephants.”
From Continuing challenges of elephant captivity: the captive environment, health issues, and welfare implications (2024) · cites this paper as Williams et al., 2023
Williams et al. (2023) found that elephants had positive responses to visitors more frequently than would be expected by chance.
“Williams et al. (2023)found that elephants had positive responses to visitors more frequently than would be expected by chance”
From Continuing challenges of elephant captivity: the captive environment, health issues, and welfare implications (2024) · cites this paper as Williams et al., 2023
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- Authors
- Williams, E., Hunton, V., Hosey, G., & Ward, S. J.
- Affiliations
- Harper Adams University (GB)
- University of Greater Manchester (GB)
- Nottingham Trent University (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Williams, Ellen
- Venue
- Animals
- Publisher
- MDPI AG
- Published
- 2023-03-28
- Volume
- 13
- Issue
- 7
- Pages
- 1178
- ISSN
- 2076-2615 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC10092984
- OpenAlex
- W4361205585
- Cited by
- 38
- References
- 52
- Citations by year
- 2026: 9 · 2025: 17 · 2024: 10 · 2023: 2
- FWCI
- 11.57
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Animals (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Harper Adams University Repository (GuildHE Research) (acceptedVersion)
- Nottingham Trent University's Institutional Repository (Nottingham Trent Repository) (acceptedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Veterinary › Small Animals › Animal Behavior and Welfare Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Animal and Plant Science Education
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Museology › Museums and Cultural Heritage
- Keywords
- visitor effects, zoo animals, animal welfare, bird species, reptiles, amphibians, fish, invertebrates, animal-based welfare measures
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