The DOI matches its Crossref record; 485 of the 487 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 3 of the 126 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Biological, Psychological, and Social Determinants of Depression: A Review of Recent Literature
Open accessAbstract
Depression is one of the leading causes of disability, and, if left unmanaged, it can increase the risk for suicide. The evidence base on the determinants of depression is fragmented, which makes the interpretation of the results across studies difficult. The objective of this study is to conduct a thorough synthesis of the literature assessing the biological, psychological, and social determinants of depression in order to piece together the puzzle of the key factors that are related to this condition. Titles and abstracts published between 2017 and 2020 were identified in PubMed, as well as Medline, Scopus, and PsycInfo. Key words relating to biological, social, and psychological determinants as well as depression were applied to the databases, and the screening and data charting of the documents took place. We included 470 documents in this literature review. The findings showed that there are a plethora of risk and protective factors (relating to biological, psychological, and social determinants) that are related to depression; these determinants are interlinked and influence depression outcomes through a web of causation. In this paper, we describe and present the vast, fragmented, and complex literature related to this topic. This review may be used to guide practice, public health efforts, policy, and research related to mental health and, specifically, depression.
Overview
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Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
This review synthesized recent literature on biological, psychological, and social determinants of depression, including 470 documents published between 2017 and 2020. It concludes that risk and protective factors are interlinked across individual and wider ecological levels and influence depression through a complex web of causation.
Key findings
- From 6335 identified documents, 470 papers were included. Determinants spanned biological factors (genetics, microbiome, inflammation, HPA-axis dysfunction, kynurenine pathway, cognition), psychological factors (rumination, neuroticism, negative self-concept, low self-esteem, maladaptive coping), and social factors (socioeconomic status, social support, adverse childhood experiences, gender, diet, and others).
- Women were found to be twice as likely to have depression as men, and depression was estimated to have a prevalence of 5% among adults.
- Biological findings included links between depression and pro-inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-alpha, BDNF (including the rs6265 allele A with major depressive disorder), HPA-axis dysregulation, and the kynurenine pathway.
- Social and psychological findings included associations between low education and low income and depression, high education and income as protective, adverse childhood experiences increasing risk, and rumination acting as both a risk factor and mediator.
Methods
- Literature review of biological, psychological, and social determinants of depression, focusing on documents published 2017–2020. Searches were conducted in PubMed, Medline, Scopus, and PsycInfo; inclusion covered primary studies, reviews, systematic reviews, meta-analyses, reports, and commentaries on human and/or rodent research, while treatment-focused studies and studies assessing depression as a comorbidity or secondary disorder were excluded.
- Titles and abstracts were screened, then full texts were assessed. Screening was conducted by O.R., with a subsample screened by J.M.; discrepancies were resolved through communication. A data charting form was piloted on 20 studies, and narrative analysis was used to identify key themes.
- The review attempted to follow PRISMA guidelines in several aspects.
Limitations
- Stated in the paper: the review may have missed potentially important studies, though this is described as unavoidable for literature reviews; the aim was not to identify every study on depression risk and protective factors but to gain insight into the breadth of literature and key themes.
- Evident from the text: heterogeneity in study design and measurement, and lack of standardization for measuring depression and its determinants, make comparison across studies difficult; findings in some areas, such as genetics, remain mixed.
- Evident from the text: the review is a narrative synthesis and does not describe a formal quality appraisal or meta-analytic pooling of results.
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Claims the paper makes
77 Not checked yet · 28 No basis given · 15 Own interpretation · 7 Own method · 3 Own result · 2 Supported · 1 Supported so far
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“One study indicated no support for depression candidate gene findings [122].”
§ Biological, Psychological, and Social Determinants of Depression: A Review of Recent Literature > 3. Results > 3.1. Biological Factors
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [122] Border, 2019, No Support for Historical Candidate Gene or Candidate Gene-by-Interaction Hypotheses for Major Depression Across Multiple Large Samples, Am. J. Psychiatry source
The Conclusions state that the study results do not support previous depression candidate gene findings. The Results likewise report no clear evidence of associations between the candidate gene polymorphisms examined and depression phenotypes. (LLM, conf=0.95)
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“stress may be associated with the “dysregulation of neuronal and synaptic plasticity” [114].”
§ Biological, Psychological, and Social Determinants of Depression: A Review of Recent Literature > 3. Results > 3.1. Biological Factors
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [114] Uchida, 2017, Epigenetic mechanisms of major depression: Targeting neuronal plasticity, Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci. source
In “The Neuronal Plasticity Theory of Depression,” the paper says studies suggest that chronic stressful life events can cause dysregulation of neuronal and synaptic plasticity. This directly supports the citing sentence’s hedged association between stress and that dysregulation. (LLM, conf=0.94)
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“women were found to be twice as likely to have depression as men.”
§ Biological, Psychological, and Social Determinants of Depression: A Review of Recent Literature > 3. Results > 3.3. Social Determinants
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [362] Arciszewska, 2019, Resilience and cognitive biases mediate the relationship between early exposure to traumatic life events and depressive symptoms in young adults, J. Affect. Disord. source
- Supportedcites [384] Bone, 2020, The role of gender inequalities in adolescent depression, Lancet Psychiatry source
The section “The role of gender inequalities in adolescent depression” states that women are twice as likely to experience depression as men. This directly supports the citing sentence. (LLM, conf=0.95)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The findings showed that there are a plethora of risk and protective factors (relating to biological, psychological, and social determinants) that are related to depression”
§ Biological, Psychological, and Social Determinants of Depression: A Review of Recent Literature > Abstract
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“For example, bladder outlet obstruction has been linked to inflammation and depressive behaviour in rodent research [24].”
§ Biological, Psychological, and Social Determinants of Depression: A Review of Recent Literature > 3. Results > 3.1. Biological Factors
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [24] Hughes, 2020, A possible mechanism underlying mood disorders associated with LUTS: Chronic bladder outlet obstruction causes NLRP3-dependent inflammation in the hippocampus and depressive behavior in rats, Neurourol. Urodyn. source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“a disordered gut microbiota can play a role in the onset of this mental health problem”
§ Biological, Psychological, and Social Determinants of Depression: A Review of Recent Literature > 3. Results > 3.1. Biological Factors
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [158] Winter, 2018, Gut microbiome and depression: What we know and what we need to know, Rev. Neurosci. source
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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In the paper
“Another study found no association between specific polymorphisms and major depressive disorder [132].”
§ Biological, Psychological, and Social Determinants of Depression: A Review of Recent Literature > 3. Results > 3.1. Biological Factors
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [132] Hu, 2018, No association of GRIN2A polymorphisms with the major depressive disorder in the Chinese Han origin, Psychiatr. Genet. source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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In the paper
“The presence of head and neck cancer also seemed to be related to an increased risk for depressive disorder [45].”
§ Biological, Psychological, and Social Determinants of Depression: A Review of Recent Literature > 3. Results > 3.1. Biological Factors
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [45] Fan, 2017, Risk of depressive disorder among patients with head and neck cancer: A nationwide population-based study, Head Neck source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Rodent research has shown that there may be a bidirectional association between the gut microbiota and depression”
§ Biological, Psychological, and Social Determinants of Depression: A Review of Recent Literature > 3. Results > 3.1. Biological Factors
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [158] Winter, 2018, Gut microbiome and depression: What we know and what we need to know, Rev. Neurosci. source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“A number of studies examined the links between the outcome of depression and physical health-related factors, such as bladder outlet obstruction, cerebral atrophy, cataract, stroke, epilepsy, body mass index and obesity, diabetes, urinary tract infection, forms of cancer, inflammatory bowel disorder, glaucoma, acne, urea accumulation, cerebral small vessel disease, traumatic brain injury, and dis”
§ Biological, Psychological, and Social Determinants of Depression: A Review of Recent Literature > 3. Results > 3.1. Biological Factors
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Probably not a substantial claim. 35
- It may state two separate claims as one. 39
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We included 470 documents in this literature review.”
- Also stated in: § 3. Results · plain
“After applying the inclusion and exclusion criteria, 470 papers were included in this review (Supplementary Table S1).”
§ Biological, Psychological, and Social Determinants of Depression: A Review of Recent Literature > Abstract
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Also stated in: § 3. Results · plain
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) plays an important role in depression”
§ Biological, Psychological, and Social Determinants of Depression: A Review of Recent Literature > 3. Results > 3.1. Biological Factors
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The presence of a physical health condition can increase the risk for depression”
§ Biological, Psychological, and Social Determinants of Depression: A Review of Recent Literature > 3. Results > 3.1. Biological Factors
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Gestational diabetes mellitus has been linked to depressive symptoms in the postpartum period (but no association has been found with depression in the third pregnancy trimester) [50]”
§ Biological, Psychological, and Social Determinants of Depression: A Review of Recent Literature > 3. Results > 3.1. Biological Factors
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [50] Varela, 2017, Association between gestational diabetes and perinatal depressive symptoms: Evidence from a Greek cohort study, Prim. Health Care Res. Dev. source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“There are possible links between the gut microbiome, host liver metabolism, brain inflammation, and depression”
§ Biological, Psychological, and Social Determinants of Depression: A Review of Recent Literature > 3. Results > 3.1. Biological Factors
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Links exist between major histocompatibility complex region genes, as well as various gene polymorphisms and depression”
§ Biological, Psychological, and Social Determinants of Depression: A Review of Recent Literature > 3. Results > 3.1. Biological Factors
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Through the searches, 6335 documents, such as primary studies, literature reviews, systematic reviews, meta-analyses, reports, and commentaries, were identified.”
§ Biological, Psychological, and Social Determinants of Depression: A Review of Recent Literature > 3. Results
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A disordered microbiome can lead to inflammation, which can then lead to depression”
§ Biological, Psychological, and Social Determinants of Depression: A Review of Recent Literature > 3. Results > 3.1. Biological Factors
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The results from genetics studies are compelling; however, the findings remain mixed.”
§ Biological, Psychological, and Social Determinants of Depression: A Review of Recent Literature > 3. Results > 3.1. Biological Factors
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“a study reported a link between the BDNF rs6265 allele (A) and major depressive disorder [117].”
§ Biological, Psychological, and Social Determinants of Depression: A Review of Recent Literature > 3. Results > 3.1. Biological Factors
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [117] Aldoghachi, A.F., Tor, Y.S., Redzun, S.Z., Bin Lokman, K.A., Razaq, N.A.A., Shahbudin, A.F., Badamasi, I.M., Cheah, P.-S., Stanslas, J., and Veerakumarasivam, A. (2019). Screening of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) single nucleotide polymorphisms and plasma BDNF levels among Malaysian major depressive disorder patients. PLoS ONE, 14. source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Research has shown associations between depression and BDNF (as well as candidate SNPs of the BDNF gene, polymorphisms of the BDNF gene, and the interaction of these polymorphisms with other determinants, such as stress) [129,144,145].”
§ Biological, Psychological, and Social Determinants of Depression: A Review of Recent Literature > 3. Results > 3.1. Biological Factors
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [129] Manukyan, 2018, Interactions Among Polymorphisms of Susceptibility Loci for Alzheimer’s Disease or Depressive Disorder, Med. Sci. Monit. source
- Not checked yetcites [144] He, 2018, Interaction between job stress and the BDNF Val66Met polymorphism affects depressive symptoms in Chinese healthcare workers, J. Affect. Disord. source
- Not checked yetcites [145] Hing, 2018, A comprehensive review of genetic and epigenetic mechanisms that regulate BDNF expression and function with relevance to major depressive disorder, Am. J. Med. Genet. B Neuropsychiatr Genet. source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“When there is an imbalance in the intestinal bacteria, this can interfere with emotional regulation and contribute to harmful inflammatory processes and mood disorders [148,151,153,155,157].”
§ Biological, Psychological, and Social Determinants of Depression: A Review of Recent Literature > 3. Results > 3.1. Biological Factors
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [148] Stower, 2019, Depression linked to the microbiome, Nat. Med.
- Not checked yetcites [151] Ma, 2019, Chronic paradoxical sleep deprivation-induced depression-like behavior, energy metabolism and microbial changes in rats, Life Sci. source
- Not checked yetcites [153] Kuo, 2018, Moody microbiome: Challenges and chances, J. Formos. Med Assoc. source
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Various determinants, such as early life stress, have also been linked to systemic inflammation, and this can increase the risk for depression [186].”
§ Biological, Psychological, and Social Determinants of Depression: A Review of Recent Literature > 3. Results > 3.1. Biological Factors
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [186] Hashimoto, 2020, Early life stress from allergic dermatitis causes depressive-like behaviors in adolescent male mice through neuroinflammatory priming, Brain Behav. Immun. source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Chronic stress can impact the dendrites and synapses of various neurons, and may be implicated in the pathway leading to major depressive disorder [114].”
§ Biological, Psychological, and Social Determinants of Depression: A Review of Recent Literature > 3. Results > 3.1. Biological Factors
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [114] Uchida, 2017, Epigenetic mechanisms of major depression: Targeting neuronal plasticity, Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci. source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Stress has been linked to the release of inflammatory factors, as well as the development of depression [204].”
§ Biological, Psychological, and Social Determinants of Depression: A Review of Recent Literature > 3. Results > 3.1. Biological Factors
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [204] Wu, 2018, PI3K/AKT/GSK3β/CRMP-2-mediated neuroplasticity in depression induced by stress, NeuroReport source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The kynurenine pathway has been implicated not only in general depressed mood (inflammation-induced depression) [184,214,219] but also postpartum depression [120].”
§ Biological, Psychological, and Social Determinants of Depression: A Review of Recent Literature > 3. Results > 3.1. Biological Factors
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [184] Dantzer, 2016, Role of the Kynurenine Metabolism Pathway in Inflammation-Induced Depression: Preclinical Approaches, Curr. Top. Behav. Neurosci. source
- Not checked yetcites [214] Jeon, 2017, Inflammation-induced depression: Its pathophysiology and therapeutic implications, J. Neuroimmunol. source
- Not checked yetcites [219] Kruse, 2019, Kynurenine metabolism and inflammation-induced depressed mood: A human experimental study, Psychoneuroendocrinology source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Another review by Danzer et al. suggests links between the inflammation-induced activation of indolamine 2,3-dioxegenase (the enzyme that converts tryptophan to kynurenine), the kynurenine metabolism pathway, and depression”
§ Biological, Psychological, and Social Determinants of Depression: A Review of Recent Literature > 3. Results > 3.1. Biological Factors
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [184] Dantzer, 2016, Role of the Kynurenine Metabolism Pathway in Inflammation-Induced Depression: Preclinical Approaches, Curr. Top. Behav. Neurosci. source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“A review by Jeon et al. notes a link between the impairment of the kynurenine pathway and inflammation-induced depression (triggered by treatment for various physical diseases, such as malignancy).”
§ Biological, Psychological, and Social Determinants of Depression: A Review of Recent Literature > 3. Results > 3.1. Biological Factors
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [214] Jeon, 2017, Inflammation-induced depression: Its pathophysiology and therapeutic implications, J. Neuroimmunol. source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“There are many affective risk factors linked to depression”
§ Biological, Psychological, and Social Determinants of Depression: A Review of Recent Literature > 3. Results > 3.2. Psychological Factors
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In addition to cognitive deficits, low-level cognitive ability [231] and cognitive vulnerability [232] have also been linked to depression.”
§ Biological, Psychological, and Social Determinants of Depression: A Review of Recent Literature > 3. Results > 3.1. Biological Factors
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [231] Nissen, 2019, Low-level cognitive ability in young adulthood and other risk factors of depression in an observational cohort study among deployed Danish soldiers, Soc. Psychiatry Psychiatr. Epidemiol. source
- Not checked yetcites [232] Liu, 2018, A Latent Structure Analysis of Cognitive Vulnerability to Depression in Adolescence, Behav. Ther. source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Family history of cognitive impairment is linked to depression”
§ Biological, Psychological, and Social Determinants of Depression: A Review of Recent Literature > 3. Results > 3.1. Biological Factors
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Determinants of depression include negative self-concept, sensitivity to rejection, neuroticism, rumination, negative emotionality, and others”
§ Biological, Psychological, and Social Determinants of Depression: A Review of Recent Literature > 3. Results > 3.2. Psychological Factors
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The cognitive reserve appears to act as a moderator and can magnify the impact of certain determinants on poor mental health.”
§ Biological, Psychological, and Social Determinants of Depression: A Review of Recent Literature > 3. Results > 3.1. Biological Factors
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“A study on individuals attending outpatient stroke clinics showed that lower scores in cognition were related to depression; thus, cognitive impairment appears to be associated with depressive symptomatology [226].”
§ Biological, Psychological, and Social Determinants of Depression: A Review of Recent Literature > 3. Results > 3.1. Biological Factors
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [226] Vermeer, 2016, Correlates of depressive symptoms in individuals attending outpatient stroke clinics, Disabil. Rehabil. source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Factors such as age, social or socioeconomic status, social support, financial strain and deprivation, food insecurity, education, employment status, living arrangements, marital status, race, childhood conflict and bullying, violent crime exposure, abuse, discrimination, (self)-stigma, ethnicity and migrant status, working conditions, adverse or significant life events, illiteracy or health liter”
§ Biological, Psychological, and Social Determinants of Depression: A Review of Recent Literature > 3. Results > 3.3. Social Determinants
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [52] Lee, 2017, Gender differences in the trajectories and the risk factors of depressive symptoms in later life, Int. Psychogeriatr. source
- Not checked yetcites [133] Geisler, 2018, Immunometabolism in the Pathogenesis of Depressive Disorders-Therapeutic Considerations, Curr. Top. Med. Chem. source
- Not checked yetcites [235] Valmisa, 2018, Prevalence and correlates of major depression in Granada, Spain: Results from the GranadΣp study, Int. J. Soc. Psychiatry source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Social support and cohesion, as well as structural social capital, have also been identified as determinants [140,228,239,269,293,372,373,374,375,376,377,378,379].”
§ Biological, Psychological, and Social Determinants of Depression: A Review of Recent Literature > 3. Results > 3.3. Social Determinants
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [140] Brouillard, 2016, Links Between the Mother–Adolescent and Father–Adolescent Relationships and Adolescent Depression: A Genetically Informed Study, J. Clin. Child Adolesc. Psychol. source
- Not checked yetcites [228] Hankin, 2018, Cognitive and Interpersonal Vulnerabilities to Adolescent Depression: Classification of Risk Profiles for a Personalized Prevention Approach, J. Abnorm. Child Psychol. source
- Not checked yetcites [239] Kim, 2016, The Impacts of Social Support and Cognitive Function on Depression among Community-Dwelling Older Japanese Americans, Soc. Work. Public Health source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Determinants can be at the individual, social network, community, and societal levels”
§ Biological, Psychological, and Social Determinants of Depression: A Review of Recent Literature > 3. Results > 3.3. Social Determinants
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Rumination has been presented as a mediator but also as a risk factor for depression [57,210,259].”
§ Biological, Psychological, and Social Determinants of Depression: A Review of Recent Literature > 3. Results > 3.2. Psychological Factors
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [57] Zhang, 2019, Association between fatigue and depressive symptoms among kidney transplantation recipients: The mediating role of rumination, J. Adv. Nurs. source
- Not checked yetcites [210] Connolly, 2017, Rumination interacts with life stress to predict depressive symptoms: An ecological momentary assessment study, Behav. Res. Ther. source
- Not checked yetcites [259] Trick, 2019, Perseverative negative thinking predicts depression in people with acute coronary syndrome, Gen. Hosp. Psychiatry source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“By contrast, high levels of education and income are protective [335].”
§ Biological, Psychological, and Social Determinants of Depression: A Review of Recent Literature > 3. Results > 3.3. Social Determinants
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [335] Park, 2018, Association of depression with socioeconomic status, anticardiolipin antibodies, and organ damage in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus: Results from the KORNET registry, Clin. Exp. Rheumatol.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In a study, part of the findings showed that low levels of education have been shown to be linked to post-stroke depression (but not severe or clinical depression outcomes) [299].”
§ Biological, Psychological, and Social Determinants of Depression: A Review of Recent Literature > 3. Results > 3.3. Social Determinants
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [299] Backhouse, E.V., McHutchison, C.A., Cvoro, V., Shenkin, S.D., and Wardlaw, J.M. (2018). Cognitive ability, education and socioeconomic status in childhood and risk of post-stroke depression in later life: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS ONE, 13. source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A number of factors arose in this review that were related to depression”
§ Biological, Psychological, and Social Determinants of Depression: A Review of Recent Literature > 3. Results > 3.4. Others
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the latter determinants have been found to increase the risk for depression.”
§ Biological, Psychological, and Social Determinants of Depression: A Review of Recent Literature > 3. Results > 3.4. Others
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The findings from this review show that there are important themes when it comes to the determinants of depression, such as: the microbiome, dysregulation of the HPA axis, inflammatory reactions, the kynurenine pathway, as well as psychological and social factors.”
§ Biological, Psychological, and Social Determinants of Depression: A Review of Recent Literature > 5. Discussion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“This review highlighted the myriad ways of measuring depression and its determinants [66,85,281,298,451,485].”
§ Biological, Psychological, and Social Determinants of Depression: A Review of Recent Literature > 5. Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [66] Trindade, 2017, An 18-month study of the effects of IBD symptomatology and emotion regulation on depressed mood, Int. J. Color. Dis. source
- Not checked yetcites [85] Treutlein, 2017, Association between neuropeptide Y receptor Y2 promoter variant rs6857715 and major depressive disorder, Psychiatr. Genet. source
- Not checked yetcites [281] Rudolph, 2017, Cognition–emotion interaction as a predictor of adolescent depressive symptoms, Dev. Psychol. source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“these determinants are interlinked and influence depression outcomes through a web of causation.”
§ Biological, Psychological, and Social Determinants of Depression: A Review of Recent Literature > Abstract
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The evidence base on the determinants of depression is fragmented, which makes the interpretation of the results across studies difficult.”
§ Biological, Psychological, and Social Determinants of Depression: A Review of Recent Literature > Abstract
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In several aspects, we attempted to conduct this review according to PRISMA guidelines [18].”
§ Biological, Psychological, and Social Determinants of Depression: A Review of Recent Literature > 2. Materials and Methods
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [18] Tricco, 2018, PRISMA Extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR): Checklist and Explanation, Ann. Intern. Med. source
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The gut bacteria and the brain communicate via both direct and indirect pathways called the gut-microbiota-brain axis (the bidirectional communication networks between the central nervous system and the gastrointestinal tract; this axis plays an important role in maintaining homeostasis).”
§ Biological, Psychological, and Social Determinants of Depression: A Review of Recent Literature > 3. Results > 3.1. Biological Factors
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The data charting form was piloted on a subset of documents, and refinements to it were made.”
§ Biological, Psychological, and Social Determinants of Depression: A Review of Recent Literature > 2. Materials and Methods
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A subsample of documents underwent double screening by two authors (O.R., J.M.); again, any discrepancies were resolved through communication.”
§ Biological, Psychological, and Social Determinants of Depression: A Review of Recent Literature > 2. Materials and Methods
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Screening of documents was conducted by O.R., and a subsample was screened by J.M.; any discrepancies were resolved through a communication process.”
§ Biological, Psychological, and Social Determinants of Depression: A Review of Recent Literature > 2. Materials and Methods
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This process (a subsample) was verified by a second author (J.M.), and the two authors resolved any discrepancies through communication.”
§ Biological, Psychological, and Social Determinants of Depression: A Review of Recent Literature > 2. Materials and Methods
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Key themes were also checked as to whether they were of major significance to public mental health and at the forefront of public health discourse according to consultations we held with stakeholders”
§ Biological, Psychological, and Social Determinants of Depression: A Review of Recent Literature > 2. Materials and Methods
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Determinants are interlinked in a complex web of causation”
§ Biological, Psychological, and Social Determinants of Depression: A Review of Recent Literature > 3. Results > 3.1. Biological Factors
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“it could be that early stress plays a role in the hyperactivation of the HPA axis, thus creating a predisposition “towards a maladaptive reaction to stress”. When this predisposition then meets an acute stressor, depression may ensue”
§ Biological, Psychological, and Social Determinants of Depression: A Review of Recent Literature > 3. Results > 3.1. Biological Factors
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [213] Dean, 2017, The neurobiology of depression: An integrated view, Asian J. Psychiatry source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“One review indicates that a potential underpinning mechanism of depression relates to “HPA axis abnormalities involved in chronic stress” [213].”
§ Biological, Psychological, and Social Determinants of Depression: A Review of Recent Literature > 3. Results > 3.1. Biological Factors
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [213] Dean, 2017, The neurobiology of depression: An integrated view, Asian J. Psychiatry source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Cognitive deficits can be both causal and resultant in depression.”
§ Biological, Psychological, and Social Determinants of Depression: A Review of Recent Literature > 3. Results > 3.1. Biological Factors
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“according to the ‘cognitive neuropsychological’ model of depression, negative affective biases play a central part in the development of depression [222,241].”
§ Biological, Psychological, and Social Determinants of Depression: A Review of Recent Literature > 3. Results > 3.1. Biological Factors
What the sources say
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Social determinants are the conditions in the environments where people are born, live, learn, work, play, etc.; these influence (mental) health [291]”
§ Biological, Psychological, and Social Determinants of Depression: A Review of Recent Literature > 3. Results > 3.3. Social Determinants
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [291] Marmot, M., Allen, J., Boyce, T., Goldblatt, P., and Morrison, J. (2020). Health Equity in England: The Marmot Review 10 Years On, in The Health Foundation, Institute of Health Equity. source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This shows that determinants may present in several forms: as moderators or mediators, risk factors or outcomes, and this is why disentangling the relationships between the various factors linked to depression is a complex task.”
§ Biological, Psychological, and Social Determinants of Depression: A Review of Recent Literature > 3. Results > 3.2. Psychological Factors
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“being exposed to deprivation, hardship, or adversity may increase the risk for air pollution exposure and nighttime shift work, among others”
§ Biological, Psychological, and Social Determinants of Depression: A Review of Recent Literature > 3. Results > 3.4. Others
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Perceived parental support has been found to interact with genes (GABRR1, GABRR2), and this appears to be associated with depressive symptoms in adolescence [480].”
§ Biological, Psychological, and Social Determinants of Depression: A Review of Recent Literature > 4. Cross-Cutting Themes > 4.2. Gene–Environment Interactions
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [480] Moons, 2017, Gene-based interaction analysis shows GABAergic genes interacting with parenting in adolescent depressive symptoms, J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The determinants have an influence on risk behaviours, and this, in turn, can affect the mood (i.e., depression), body processes (ex. can increase inflammation), and may negatively influence brain structure and function.”
§ Biological, Psychological, and Social Determinants of Depression: A Review of Recent Literature > 3. Results > 3.3. Social Determinants
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Nevertheless, all of these factors are interlinked and influence one another in a complex web of causation, as mentioned elsewhere in the paper.”
§ Biological, Psychological, and Social Determinants of Depression: A Review of Recent Literature > 3. Results > 3.3. Social Determinants
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Air pollution could also be regarded as an ecologic-level (environmental) determinant of mental health.”
§ Biological, Psychological, and Social Determinants of Depression: A Review of Recent Literature > 3. Results > 3.4. Others
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Previous literature has shown that chronic stress (associated with depression) is also linked to glucocorticoid receptor resistance, as well as problems with the regulation of the inflammatory response [484].”
§ Biological, Psychological, and Social Determinants of Depression: A Review of Recent Literature > 5. Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [484] Cohen, 2012, Chronic stress, glucocorticoid receptor resistance, inflammation, and disease risk, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These determinants are interlinked and influence one another.”
§ Biological, Psychological, and Social Determinants of Depression: A Review of Recent Literature > 6. Conclusions
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It may be that physical factors are proximal determinants of depression, which, in turn, are acted on by more distal social factors, such as deprivation, environmental events, and social capital.”
§ Biological, Psychological, and Social Determinants of Depression: A Review of Recent Literature > 5. Discussion
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“an exhaustive discussion of all the risk factors and determinants linked to depression and their mechanisms is not possible in one journal article—which, by its very nature, a single paper cannot do.”
§ Biological, Psychological, and Social Determinants of Depression: A Review of Recent Literature > 6. Conclusions
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The limitations of the review include missing potentially important studies; however, this is a weakness that cannot be avoided by literature reviews.”
§ Biological, Psychological, and Social Determinants of Depression: A Review of Recent Literature > 5. Discussion > 5.2. Limitations
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper relies on this without support.
Previous syntheses on depression are limited in scope and focus exclusively on social or biological factors, population sub-groups, or examine depression as a comorbidity rather than an independent disorder.
“The previous syntheses on depression are limited in scope and focus exclusively on social or biological factors, population sub-groups, or examine depression as a comorbidity (rather than an independent disorder).”
The paper relies on this without support.
Research on the determinants and causal pathways of depression is fragmented and heterogeneous, and this has not helped to stimulate progress in prevention and intervention.
“The research on the determinants and causal pathways of depression is fragmentated and heterogeneous, and this has not helped to stimulate progress when it comes to the prevention and intervention of this condition—specifically unravelling the complexity of the determinants related to this condition and thus refining the prevention and intervention methods.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Early life is a critical period during the lifespan at which cognitive processes develop.
“Early life is a critical period during the lifespan at which cognitive processes develop.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Older people are at a heightened risk of losing their social networks.
“Older people are at a heightened risk of losing their social networks”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Additionally, we used a multidimensional approach to evaluate trial outcomes; symptom assessments were complemented with evaluation of change in subjective mental health behaviors and quality of life, as well as change in objective measures of neuro-cognition that are impacted in depression [31–37].”
From Personalized machine learning guided intervention for optimizing lifestyle behaviors in depression: a pilot study (2026) · cites this paper as [34]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Notably, while depression can be associated with cognitive deficits [31–37]”
From Personalized machine learning guided intervention for optimizing lifestyle behaviors in depression: a pilot study (2026) · cites this paper as [34]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Biological, Psychological, and Social Determinants of Depression: A Review of Recent Literature > 4. Cross-Cutting Themes > 4.2. Gene–Environment Interactions
“while another reported an interaction between stress and 5-HTTLPR in relation to depression [480].”
§ Biological, Psychological, and Social Determinants of Depression: A Review of Recent Literature > References
“480. Van Assche E. Moons T. Cinar O. Viechtbauer W. Oldehinkel A.J. Leeuwen K.V. Verschueren K. Colpin H. Lambrechts D. Noortgate W.V.D. Gene-based interaction analysis shows GABAergic genes interacting with parenting in adolescent depressive symptoms”
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Metadata
- Authors
- Remes, O., Mendes, J. F., & Templeton, P.
- Affiliations
- University of Cambridge (GB)
- Universidade Nova de Lisboa (PT)
- Corresponding author
- Remes, Olivia
- Venue
- Brain Sciences
- Publisher
- MDPI AG
- Published
- 2021-12-10
- Volume
- 11
- Issue
- 12
- Pages
- 1633
- ISSN
- 2076-3425 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC8699555
- OpenAlex
- W4200206491
- Cited by
- 482
- References
- 487
- Citations by year
- 2026: 127 · 2025: 173 · 2024: 117 · 2023: 53 · 2022: 12
- FWCI
- 7.15
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Brain Sciences (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Portuguese National Funding Agency for Science, Research and Technology (RCAAP Project by FCT) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Apollo (University of Cambridge) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Apollo
- Apollo (cc-by)
- Funders
- The William Templeton Foundation for Young People's Mental Health (NA)
- Cambridge Philosophical Society (NA)
- Aviva Foundation (NA)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Mental Health Treatment and Access
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Pharmacology (medical) › Treatment of Major Depression
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Keywords
- depression, biological determinants, psychological factors, social determinants, risk factors, protective factors, depression outcomes, suicide risk, mental health
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-09, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-09 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Cited sources are checked with a language model’s help (gpt-6-sol).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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