A Review of Algae-Based Carbon Capture, Utilization, and Storage (Algae-Based CCUS)

In the paper

“α-amylase | | 95-115 • C | 5.0-7.5 | Microalgae | [218]”

What the sources say

• Disputed

  The Results section on enzyme optimization reports an optimum temperature of 70 °C, not 95–115 °C, and an optimum pH of 7.0, not a 5.0–7.5 optimum range. The Results section on algal biomass does support applicability to microalgae: the enzyme reduced the viscosity of Chlorella vulgaris biomass. (LLM, conf=0.90)

  Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.

  cites [218] Timilsina, P.M., Pandey, G.R., Shrestha, A., Ojha, M., and Karki, T.B. (2020). Purification and Characterization of a Noble Thermostable Algal Starch Liquefying Alpha-Amylase from Aeribacillus Pallidus BTPS-2 Isolated from Geothermal Spring of Nepal. Biotechnol. Rep., 28. sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“Algae-based CCUS is integral to the BECCS framework, leveraging algae's biological processes to capture and sequester CO 2 while simultaneously contributing to energy production and potentially achieving net negative carbon emissions.”

In the paper

“Algae's high photosynthetic efficiency, rapid growth rates, and ability to grow in non-arable environments provide significant advantages over other BECCS methods.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [38][39][40]
• Not checked yetcites [41] Laurens, 2017, A Perspective on Renewable Bioenergy from Photosynthetic Algae as Feedstock for Biofuels and Bioproducts, Algal Res. source
• Not checked yetcites [44][45][46]

In the paper

“In particular, macroalgae, such as kelp, Saccharina, and Ulva, are primarily used in the production of food, feed, and chemicals and biochemicals due to their rich nutritional qualities and bioactive compounds.”

In the paper

“Among the biofuels derived from microalgae, biodiesel and bioethanol generally hold the highest potential due to well-established thermochemical processing methods and the energy-dense nature of their lipid and carbohydrate contents.”

In the paper

“Algae can grow in diverse water types, including freshwater [70,71], saltwater [72][73][74], and even wastewater [72].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [70] Verawaty, 2017, Cultivation Strategy for Freshwater Macro- and Micro-Algae as Biomass Stock for Lipid Production, J. Eng. Technol. Sci. source
• Not checked yetcites [71] Xu, 2015, Nutrient Removal and Biogas Upgrading by Integrating Freshwater Algae Cultivation with Piggery Anaerobic Digestate Liquid Treatment, Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. source
• Not checked yetcites [72][73][74]
• Not checked yetcites [72] Chew, 2018, Effects of Water Culture Medium, Cultivation Systems and Growth Modes for Microalgae Cultivation: A Review, J. Taiwan Inst. Chem. Eng. source

In the paper

“For instance, Chlorella vulgaris and Scenedesmus obliquus have been successfully cultivated in wastewater and have aided in the removal of pollutants like nitrogen and phosphorus [77,78].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [77] Asaad, A.A., and Amer, A.S. (2024). Evaluation of Chlorella Vulgaris Biosorption Capacity for Phosphate and Nitrate Removal from Wastewater. Sci. Rep., 14. source
• Not checked yetcites [78] He, 2023, Cultivation of Chlorella Pyrenoidosa and Scenedesmus Obliquus in Swine Wastewater: Nitrogen and Phosphorus Removal and Microalgal Growth, Process Saf. Environ. Prot. source

In the paper

“Algae can also thrive in environments that are unsuitable for traditional agriculture, such as polluted water, minimizing competition for arable land and freshwater [44][45][46].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [44][45][46]

In the paper

“The carbon capture capacity of algae is primarily determined by factors including algal species, light conditions, temperature and pH, and the cultivation medium composition.”

In the paper

“In addition to CO 2 , algae can absorb sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides, further contributing to emission reductions [42,43].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [42] Srivastava, 2023, Study of Acidic Air Pollutant (SO2 and NO2) Tolerance of Microalgae with Sodium Bicarbonate as Growth Stimulant, AQUA—Water Infrastruct. Ecosyst. Soc. source
• Not checked yetcites [43] Qie, F., Zhu, J., Rong, J., and Zong, B. (2019). Biological Removal of Nitrogen Oxides by Microalgae, a Promising Strategy from Nitrogen Oxides to Protein Production. Bioresour. Technol., 292. source

In the paper

“This adaptability allows some microalgae to be cultivated on land unsuitable for traditional agriculture, such as non-arable or saline soils, thus avoiding competition with conventional crops for valuable arable land and freshwater resources.”

In the paper

“This process involves two stages: light-dependent and lightindependent reactions, with the associated reactions illustrated in Figure 2.”

In the paper

“Initially, a total of 6195 publications were retrieved from the database search.After screening abstracts according to inclusion criteria, 1600 publications were selected for full-text review.Finally, approximately 280 studies were included in this review.”

In the paper

“Spiruline platensis has been shown to absorb and detoxify heavy metals in contaminated water while contributing to biomass production by capturing CO 2 [79].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [79] Diaconu, M., Soreanu, G., Balan, C.D., Buciscanu, I.I., Maier, V., and Cretescu, I. (2023). Study of Spirulina Platensis (Arthrospira) Development under the Heavy Metals Influence, as a Potential Promoter of Wastewater Remediation. Water, 15. source

In the paper

“Notably, the production of biofuels from microalgae exemplifies a sustainable closed-loop process.During biofuel combustion, CO 2 is emitted and can then be absorbed by algae for photosynthesis as part of a natural cycle, thus creating a continuous and self-sustaining carbon process.”

In the paper

“Algae capture CO 2 through photosynthesis, which can be utilized in the commercial production of high-value products such as food, nutraceuticals, pharmaceuticals, and cosmetics.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [37] Vigani, 2015, Food and Feed Products from Micro-Algae: Market Opportunities and Challenges for the EU, Trends Food Sci. Technol. source

In the paper

“Algae exhibit higher photosynthetic rates and shorter growth cycles compared to traditional terrestrial plants [47].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [47] Paul, 2021, Review on the Recent Structural Advances in Open and Closed Systems for Carbon Capture through Algae, Energy Nexus source

In the paper

“In contrast, microalgae are commonly utilized for biofuel production due to their high biomass content and rapid growth rates.”

In the paper

“However, there are still a lack of comprehensive reviews on algae-based CCUS through both organic and inorganic pathways.”

In the paper

“In addition, several studies have explored the integration of algal cultivation with wastewater [130,131] and CO 2 -rich waste gases [132,133] to enhance algal biomass accumulation and improve carbon capture efficiency while mitigating environmental impacts.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [130] Gentili, 2017, Algal Cultivation in Urban Wastewater: An Efficient Way to Reduce Pharmaceutical Pollutants, J. Appl. Phycol. source
• Not checked yetcites [131] Ma, 2014, Effect of Wastewater-Borne Bacteria on Algal Growth and Nutrients Removal in Wastewater-Based Algae Cultivation System, Bioresour. Technol. source
• Not checked yetcites [132] Bakonyi, 2020, Possibilities for the Biologically-Assisted Utilization of CO2-Rich Gaseous Waste Streams Generated during Membrane Technological Separation of Biohydrogen, J. CO2 Util. source
• Not checked yetcites [133] Comley, 2024, Utilizing CO2 in Industrial off-Gas for Microalgae Cultivation: Considerations and Solutions, Crit. Rev. Biotechnol. source

In the paper

“They found that the microalgae thrived in dairy wastewater, effectively removing nutrients, and leading to increased biomass production [134].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [134] Hena, 2015, Cultivation of Algae Consortium in a Dairy Farm Wastewater for Biodiesel Production, Water Resour. Ind. source

In the paper

“This approach not only lowers the operational and maintenance costs associated with stringent environmental conditions, but also enhances biomass production by allowing different species to complementarily utilize the nutrients in the cultivation medium, leading to improved economic benefits [129].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [129] Reis, 2003, Production of Polyhydroxyalkanoates by Mixed Microbial Cultures, Bioprocess. Biosyst. Eng. source

In the paper

“Using this wastewater as a nutrient source for algal cultures promotes growth, increases biomass yield, and addresses the environmental challenges posed by wastewater.”

In the paper

“Traditional approaches like selective breeding and strain development [107,108] and environmental adaptation [109,110] have long been used to improve algal traits.However, both methods typically require extended periods of time to achieve significant improvements.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [107] Takouridis, 2015, The Selective Breeding of the Freshwater Microalga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii for Growth in Salinity, Bioresour. Technol. source
• Not checked yetcites [108] Jebali, A., Sanchez, M.R., Hanschen, E.R., Starkenburg, S.R., and Corcoran, A.A. (2022). Trait Drift in Microalgae and Applications for Strain Improvement. Biotechnol. Adv., 60. source
• Not checked yetcites [109] Nayaka, S., Toppo, K., and Verma, S. (2017). Adaptation in Algae to Environmental Stress and Ecological Conditions. Plant Adaptation Strategies in Changing Environment, Springer. source
• Not checked yetcites [110] Cho, 2023, Genome-Wide Signatures of Adaptation to Extreme Environments in Red Algae, Nat. Commun. source

In the paper

“Most algae exhibit a maximum carbon capture and biomass production within a temperature range of 15 • C to 30 • C [95], and a pH of 7 to 9 [103], which is neutral to slightly alkaline, and promotes efficient carbon fixation via the CCM [104].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [95] Singh, 2015, Effect of Temperature and Light on the Growth of Algae Species: A Review, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. source
• Not checked yetcites [103] Gimmler, H. (2001). Acidophilic and Acidotolerant Algae. Algal Adaptation to Environmental Stresses, Springer. source

In the paper

“Specifically, they employed a gravity enrichment method to cultivate lipid-rich and carbohydrate-rich algae based on their cell density differences.The less dense lipid-rich algae float on the surface of the culture medium, while the denser starchrich algae settle at the bottom.This simple, flexible, and cost-effective method enhances large-scale production of algae with different storage”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [126] Hassanpour, 2015, Gravimetric Enrichment of High Lipid and Starch Accumulating Microalgae, Bioresour. Technol. source

In the paper

“Nutrient-rich wastewater from sources such as dairy and sugar processing contains essential nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, which, if untreated, can disrupt normal water uses, including drinking, irrigation, and recreational activities [134-137].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [134] Hena, 2015, Cultivation of Algae Consortium in a Dairy Farm Wastewater for Biodiesel Production, Water Resour. Ind. source
• Not checked yetcites [135] Passero, 2015, Dairy Wastewaters for Algae Cultivation, Polyhydroxyalkanote Reactor Effluent Versus Anaerobic Digester Effluent, Bioenergy Res. source
• Not checked yetcites [136] Vieira Costa, J.A., Cruz, C.G., and da Rosa, A.P.C. (2021). Insights into the Technology Utilized to Cultivate Microalgae in Dairy Effluents. Biocatal. Agric. Biotechnol., 35. source
• Not checked yetcites [137] Zewdie, 2020, Cultivation of Microalgae for Biofuel Production: Coupling with Sugarcane-Processing Factories, Energy Sustain. Soc. source

In the paper

“To fully leverage the advantages of mixed-culture systems in large-scale production, Hassanpour et al. utilized such systems to simultaneously capture CO 2 and produce various types of biomass, enhancing the economic efficiency and productivity of biomass production [126].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [126] Hassanpour, 2015, Gravimetric Enrichment of High Lipid and Starch Accumulating Microalgae, Bioresour. Technol. source

In the paper

“Mixed cultures leverage species diversity [127], enabling adaptation to varying light, temperature, and pH conditions [128].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [127] Kleerebezem, 2007, Mixed Culture Biotechnology for Bioenergy Production, Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. source
• Not checked yetcites [128] Scott, 2010, Biodiesel from Algae: Challenges and Prospects, Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. source

In the paper

“While this method ensures efficient growth under optimal conditions and facilitates standardized management and operation, it is highly sensitive to environmental fluctuations and exhibits poor resistance to stress.As a result, it requires costly maintenance and is vulnerable to contamination, which can severely impact algal growth and productivity.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [124] Smith, 2014, Applying Ecological Principles of Crop Cultivation in Large-Scale Algal Biomass Production, Algal Res. source

In the paper

“Third-generation biofuels from algae have garnered attention due to algae's rapid growth, high yield, low land use, and efficient CO 2 utilization, making them a more sustainable option.”

In the paper

“This biomass can then be further processed into biofuels and other valuable products, thereby utilizing carbon in a form that creates economic value and contributes to the CCUS process.”

In the paper

“Additionally, the main products of solid pellet combustion are typically CO 2 and ash, both of which can be fully recycled into algae cultivation [48].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [48] Yang, J., Zhao, T., Cui, X., Peng, M., Wang, X., Mao, H., and Cui, M. (2022). New Insights into the Carbon Neutrality of Microalgae from Culture to Utilization: A Critical Review on the Algae-Based Solid Biofuels. Biomass Bioenergy, 166. source

In the paper

“The results demonstrated that this method achieved a promisingly high net energy ratio and underscored the significance of using this strain for effective capture and utilization of CO 2 -rich gas streams.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [138] kumar, 2019, Utilization of Unfiltered LPG-Burner Exhaust-Gas Emission Using Microalga Coelastrella sp., J. CO2 Util. source

In the paper

“In essence, this makes microalgal cultivation systems intelligent, as it can autonomously manage and improve their operational performance, greatly enhancing cultivation efficiency and leading to more efficient carbon capture.”

In the paper

“The results demonstrated that leveraging synergies between CO 2 emission sources and algal cultivation can not only enhance carbon capture efficiency but also support the sustainable production of algal biofuels and bioproducts.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [139] Acedo, 2020, Coupling Carbon Capture from a Power Plant with Semi-Automated Open Raceway Ponds for Microalgae Cultivation, J. Vis. Exp.

In the paper

“Microbubble-assisted PBRs, integrating Venturi microbubble generators and bubble columns, significantly increase the gas-liquid contact area to promote the mass transfer efficiency of CO 2 , thereby boosting the overall CO 2 capture efficiency [142].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [142] Dey, 2020, High-Rate CO2 Sequestration Using a Novel Venturi Integrated Photobioreactor and Subsequent Valorization to Microalgal Lipids, Green. Chem. source

In the paper

“These pellets offer significant advantages as a fuel, particularly due to their high efficiency during direct combustion and low carbon emissions.”

In the paper

“Gaseous CO 2 , the most commonly used carbon source for algae cultivation, transfers into the cultivation medium through diffusion across the gas-liquid interface, which is influenced by mass transfer limitations.”

In the paper

“These components offer exceptional antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and free radical scavenging properties, leading to their widespread applications in food, feed, supplements, pharmaceuticals, and cosmetics [37,84,155,156].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [37] Vigani, 2015, Food and Feed Products from Micro-Algae: Market Opportunities and Challenges for the EU, Trends Food Sci. Technol. source
• Not checked yetcites [84] Lerat, Y., Cornish, M.L., and Critchley, A.T. (2018). Applications of Algal Biomass in Global Food and Feed Markets: From Traditional Usage to the Potential for Functional Products. Blue Biotechnology, Wiley. source
• Not checked yetcites [155] Vieira, M.V., Pastrana, L.M., and Fuciños, P. (2020). Microalgae Encapsulation Systems for Food, Pharmaceutical and Cosmetics Applications. Mar. Drugs, 18. source
• Not checked yetcites [156] Michalak, 2015, Algae as Production Systems of Bioactive Compounds, Eng. Life Sci. source

In the paper

“Furthermore, the connectivity features of IoT allow for remote management and operation, enabling the automatic adjustment of lighting, temperature, and nutrient supply.”

In the paper

“The CO 2 released during biofuel production and combustion can be absorbed by algae again for cultivation, creating a closed-loop system that aligns with the BECCS framework and offers significant potential for net-negative carbon emissions.”

In the paper

“Their study demonstrated that, in addition to significantly improving carbon fixation efficiency in algae, bicarbonate application can enhance carbon utilization by increasing the production of intracellular total sugars, exopolysaccharides, chlorophyll, and phycocyanin.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [150] Yang, 2024, Carbon Capture and Utilization by Algae with High Concentration CO2 or Bicarbonate as Carbon Source, Sci. Total Environ. source

In the paper

“During plant growth, atmospheric CO 2 is absorbed, and when biofuels are combusted, the CO 2 released is roughly equivalent to the amount absorbed, making biofuels a relatively clean energy source [53].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [53] Nematian, T., and Barati, M. (2019). Nanobiocatalytic Processes for Producing Biodiesel from Algae. Sustainable Bioenergy, Elsevier. source

In the paper

“Specifically, algae capture CO 2 from the atmosphere and efficiently convert it into organic carbon compounds in algal biomass, which serves as an intermediary product.”

In the paper

“The results demonstrated that these microorganisms catalyzed the formation of calcite (CaCO 3 ) crystals, which bonded sand particles together, significantly increasing the soil strength and reducing permeability.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [270] Sharma, 2020, Strength Enhancement and Lead Immobilization of Sand Using Consortia of Bacteria and Blue-Green Algae, J. Hazard. Toxic Radioact. Waste source

In the paper

“While energy conversion efficiency and economic feasibility depend on multiple factors, thermochemical technologies generally demonstrate higher energy conversion efficiencies and greater economic feasibility compared to biochemical processes [267].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [267] Raheem, 2015, Thermochemical Conversion of Microalgal Biomass for Biofuel Production, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. source

In the paper

“It also degrades polysaccharides, lowers energy consumption, and increases sugar yields, making it a cost-efficient option compared to other pretreatment technologies [197].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [197] Phwan, C.K., Chew, K.W., Sebayang, A.H., Ong, H.C., Ling, T.C., Malek, M.A., Ho, Y.-C., and Show, P.L. (2019). Effects of Acids Pre-Treatment on the Microbial Fermentation Process for Bioethanol Production from Microalgae. Biotechnol. Biofuels, 12. source

In the paper

“Optimizing process parameters through simulation lowers production costs and improves both the efficiency and quality of syngas production in practical applications.”

In the paper

“Miranda et al. produced Scenedesmus pellets with a density of 788 kg/m 3 and an energy density of 14,165 MJ/m 3 , which is higher than that of industrial wood-based fuels (around 11,000 MJ/m 3 ), highlighting their significant biofuel potential [161].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [161] Miranda, 2018, Physical-Energy Characterization of Microalgae Scenedesmus and Experimental Pellets, Fuel source

In the paper

“This characteristic is a significant advantage of the technology, as it reduces energy consumption for drying algae, improves production efficiency, and lowers production costs.”

In the paper

“Although production technologies for various algae-based biofuels are continuously advancing, algae-based biodiesel is currently the one closest to commercialization.”

In the paper

“Kosowska-Golachowska et al. tested Oscillatoria sp.pellets in circulating fluidized bed (CFB) boilers, achieving a high heating value of 15.86 MJ/kg, fast ignition at 308 • C, and efficient combustion times [164].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [164] Urbaniak, 2017, Analysis of Microalgae Pellets Combustion in a Circulating Fluidized-Bed, E3S Web Conf. source

In the paper

“The production of algae-based syngas is influenced by the algae type and characteristics, as well as by gasification operational parameters, such as temperature, pressure, and airflow rate.”

In the paper

“Algae-based syngas is produced through gasification, a process where biomass is converted into syngas at high temperatures (700-1000 °C) with oxidants like oxygen, air and steam.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [255] Faraji, 2021, Hydrogen-Rich Syngas Production via Integrated Configuration of Pyrolysis and Air Gasification Processes of Various Algal Biomass: Process Simulation and Evaluation Using Aspen Plus Software, Int. J. Hydrog. Energy source

In the paper

“Compared to using coal alone, the co-combustion of algae-based pellets or co-pellets with coal can lower ignition and burnout temperatures, increase the combustion index, and reduce ignition delay times [48,169], thus significantly enhancing the overall combustion performance.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [48] Yang, J., Zhao, T., Cui, X., Peng, M., Wang, X., Mao, H., and Cui, M. (2022). New Insights into the Carbon Neutrality of Microalgae from Culture to Utilization: A Critical Review on the Algae-Based Solid Biofuels. Biomass Bioenergy, 166. source
• Not checked yetcites [169] Kastanaki, 2006, A Comparative Reactivity and Kinetic Study on the Combustion of Coal–Biomass Char Blends, Fuel source

In the paper

“However, this organic pathway primarily emphasizes carbon utilization rather than carbon storage, as the captured carbon is stored only short-term before being converted into biofuels for utilization rather than being permanently stored.”

In the paper

“Other algae-based biofuels remain in the research or pilot stages and have not yet achieved large-scale commercial production.”

In the paper

“Although HTC technology has not yet been widely adopted, its low energy consumption presents significant potential for biocoal production.”

In the paper

“Simultaneously, the MICP process involves key microbial processes, such as ureolysis (urea hydrolysis), sulfate reduction, and denitrification, which not only elevate the pH within the microbial system, but also increase the concentration of bicarbonate ions [271].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [271] Lin, W., Lin, W., Cheng, X., Chen, G., and Ersan, Y.C. (2021). Microbially Induced Desaturation and Carbonate Precipitation through Denitrification: A Review. Appl. Sci., 11. source

In the paper

“This integrated approach not only enhances resource efficiency but also reduces waste production and potentially increases economic benefits, making the overall process more sustainable and economically viable.”

In the paper

“Enzymatic catalysts, with their unique acyl migration mechanism, offer significant benefits in improving the transesterification reaction completeness, reducing unreacted intermediates and byproducts, and enhancing biodiesel purity and yield [184].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [184] Christopher, 2014, Enzymatic Biodiesel: Challenges and Opportunities, Appl. Energy source

In the paper

“In hydrolysis, hydrolytic bacteria secreting enzymes break down complex organic polymers into simpler compounds, with hydrogen being released.”

In the paper

“Some traditional carbon storage techniques, such as geological storage, can incur high costs and involve risks of leakage.”

In the paper

“In algae-based carbon utilization for biofuel production, improving the efficiency and yield of biofuel production can be achieved by selecting suitable algal strains as feedstock.”

In the paper

“This research highlights the potential of combining algal characteristics with biomanufacturing techniques to harness the dual carbon storage capabilities of algae, offering a scalable solution for CO 2 storage.”

In the paper

“The energy required for cultivation, harvesting, and conversion must be carefully managed to ensure that the net energy balance remains positive, that is, the energy output from the final biofuel exceeds the energy input.”

In the paper

“Low protein and lipid content but high carbohydrates and moisture”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [53] Nematian, T., and Barati, M. (2019). Nanobiocatalytic Processes for Producing Biodiesel from Algae. Sustainable Bioenergy, Elsevier. source
• Not checked yetcites [59] Sambusiti, 2015, Algae as Promising Feedstocks for Fermentative Biohydrogen Production According to a Biorefinery Approach: A Comprehensive Review, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. source
• Not checked yetcites [60] Saifuddin, 2016, Developments in Bio-Hydrogen Production from Algae: A Review, Res. J. Appl. Sci. Eng. Technol. source

In the paper

“This makes it a more sustainable, eco-friendly, and cost-effective choice for carbon sequestration.”

In the paper

“Consequently, in algae, carbon is stored not only in the form of organic biomass through photosynthesis, but also as inorganic calcium carbonate precipitates via MICP.”

In the paper

“Coastal or shallow water areas, substrate attachment usually requiring”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [53] Nematian, T., and Barati, M. (2019). Nanobiocatalytic Processes for Producing Biodiesel from Algae. Sustainable Bioenergy, Elsevier. source
• Not checked yetcites [59] Sambusiti, 2015, Algae as Promising Feedstocks for Fermentative Biohydrogen Production According to a Biorefinery Approach: A Comprehensive Review, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. source
• Not checked yetcites [60] Saifuddin, 2016, Developments in Bio-Hydrogen Production from Algae: A Review, Res. J. Appl. Sci. Eng. Technol. source

In the paper

“Recent advancements in these technologies have led to increased yields of biofuels.”

In the paper

“Algae, with its high photosynthetic efficiency, fast growth rates, and lack of competition with arable land, has emerged as a promising candidate within the BECCS framework to address the dual challenges of reducing atmospheric CO 2 concentrations and producing sustainable bioenergy.”

In the paper

“The algae-based photosynthetic MICP dual carbon storage mechanism shows significant potential for practical and widespread application due to its scalability.”

In the paper

“Classified into Heterokontophyta, and Rhodophyta Cyanophyta, Chlorophyta, four groups based on pigmentation:”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [53] Nematian, T., and Barati, M. (2019). Nanobiocatalytic Processes for Producing Biodiesel from Algae. Sustainable Bioenergy, Elsevier. source
• Not checked yetcites [59] Sambusiti, 2015, Algae as Promising Feedstocks for Fermentative Biohydrogen Production According to a Biorefinery Approach: A Comprehensive Review, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. source
• Not checked yetcites [60] Saifuddin, 2016, Developments in Bio-Hydrogen Production from Algae: A Review, Res. J. Appl. Sci. Eng. Technol. source

In the paper

“Currently, algae-based carbon capture technologies have significantly improved CO 2 capture efficiency through photosynthesis by enhancing open and closed cultivation systems and optimizing relevant cultivation parameters.”

In the paper

“Some traditional carbon capture technologies, such as amine-based CO2 capture systems and post-combustion carbon capture, generate harmful by-products like amine degradation products or corrosive compounds, which require higher costs for additional treatment processes, chemicals, and extra energy.”

In the paper

“In contrast, photosynthetic MICP leverages natural biological processes that do not require external energy or produce toxic by-products.”

In the paper

“This dual carbon storage mecha-nism, when integrated with additive manufacturing technology, enables the production of materials for carbon storage, facilitating scalable and feasible CO 2 storage solutions.”

In the paper

“Therefore, this dual carbon mechanism creates a more resilient and efficient approach for carbon sequestration, effectively addressing the need for both short-term (organic) and more importantly, long-term (inorganic) carbon storage solutions.”

In the paper

“The CO 2 captured by algae is converted into algal biomass, which can be utilized for the production of various biofuels, including solid pellets and biocoal as solid biofuels, biodiesel and bioethanol as liquid biofuels, and biohydrogen, biogas, and syngas as gaseous biofuels.”

In the paper

“High productivity; carbon to biomass from inorganic Bioremediation of contaminants; High conversion capability”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [53] Nematian, T., and Barati, M. (2019). Nanobiocatalytic Processes for Producing Biodiesel from Algae. Sustainable Bioenergy, Elsevier. source
• Not checked yetcites [59] Sambusiti, 2015, Algae as Promising Feedstocks for Fermentative Biohydrogen Production According to a Biorefinery Approach: A Comprehensive Review, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. source
• Not checked yetcites [60] Saifuddin, 2016, Developments in Bio-Hydrogen Production from Algae: A Review, Res. J. Appl. Sci. Eng. Technol. source

In the paper

“This creates a dual carbon storage mechanism, as illustrated in Figure 6, which involves both photosynthesis and MICP, further enhancing the potential of algae-based systems in CCUS.”

In the paper

“Complex structures composed of multicellular organisms”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [53] Nematian, T., and Barati, M. (2019). Nanobiocatalytic Processes for Producing Biodiesel from Algae. Sustainable Bioenergy, Elsevier. source
• Not checked yetcites [59] Sambusiti, 2015, Algae as Promising Feedstocks for Fermentative Biohydrogen Production According to a Biorefinery Approach: A Comprehensive Review, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. source
• Not checked yetcites [60] Saifuddin, 2016, Developments in Bio-Hydrogen Production from Algae: A Review, Res. J. Appl. Sci. Eng. Technol. source

In the paper

“This approach improves overall economic viability, promoting the sustainable development of algae-based CCUS.”

In the paper

“For instance, modifying photosynthetic pigments [278], altering photosynthesis-related proteins [279], and improving the activity and stability of carbon fixation enzymes [280] can help algae maintain efficient carbon capture under diverse cultivation conditions.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [278] Kana, 1997, Regulation of Photosynthetic Pigments in Micro-algae by Multiple Environmental Factors: A Dynamic Balance Hypothesis, New Phytol. source
• Not checked yetcites [279] Vener, 2007, Environmentally Modulated Phosphorylation and Dynamics of Proteins in Photosynthetic Membranes, Biochim. Et Biophys. Acta (BBA)-Bioenerg. source
• Not checked yetcites [280] Durall, 2015, Mechanisms of Carbon Fixation and Engineering for Increased Carbon Fixation in Cyanobacteria, Algal Res. source

In the paper

“As a result, the study demonstrated that the algae in these optimized bioprinted structures could survive and grow normally for over a year, successfully achieving dual carbon storage through biomass production via photosynthesis and the formation of insoluble carbonates via MICP.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [272] Dranseike, D., Cui, Y., Ling, A.S., Donat, F., Bernhard, S., Bernero, M., Areeckal, A., Qin, X.-H., Oakey, J.S., and Dillenburger, B. (2023). Dual Carbon Sequestration with Photosynthetic Living Materials. bioRxiv, 12. source

In the paper

“Additionally, genetic and metabolic engineering can be employed to optimize specific phenotypes and metabolic pathways in algae, maximizing biomass yield and significantly improving biofuel production efficiency and output.”

In the paper

“Algae, in addition to storing CO 2 as organic matter through photosynthesis, can leverage their microbial properties to store CO 2 in the form of inorganic carbon precipitation through MICP, thereby exhibiting a dual carbon storage mechanism.”

In the paper

“Additionally, enhancing algae's resistance to bacterial and other biological contamination can significantly reduce the maintenance costs of cultivation systems.”

In the paper

“Additionally, by converting by-products or residual algae from biofuel production into high-value products such as biofertilizers, animal feed, or raw materials for the chemical industry, a diversified revenue stream can be created.”

In the paper

“However, despite recent technological advancements that have supported the growth of algae-based CCUS, economic viability remains the primary barrier to widespread adoption.”

• Also stated in: § Economic viability remains the primary barrier to the large-scale industrial adoption of algae-based CCUS. · plain

  “Economic viability remains the primary barrier to the large-scale industrial adoption of algae-based CCUS.”

In the paper

“In recent years, advancements in enhancing algal traits, improving cultivation techniques, optimizing cultivation systems and their parameters, and refining carbon sources have significantly increased the efficiency of carbon capture by algae.”

In the paper

“Furthermore, compared with other industrial carbon capture and storage techniques, photosynthetic MICP is more environmentally friendly and cost-effective.”

In the paper

“Amyloglucosidase | 20-70 • C | 3.50-5.50 | Microalgae | [217]”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [217] Dura, 2014, Functionality of Porous Starch Obtained by Amylase or Amyloglucosidase Treatments, Carbohydr. Polym. source

In the paper

“Cellulase | | 30-45 • C | 4.5-5 | Macroalgae | [216]”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [216] Sohail, 2009, Cellulase Production from Aspergillus Niger MS82: Effect of Temperature and PH, New Biotechnol. source

In the paper

“Xylose-fermenting microorganisms, including Candida shehatae and Pichia stipitis”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [193] Li, 2014, An Overview of Algae Bioethanol Production, Int. J. Energy Res. source

In the paper

“β-glucosidase | | less than 80 • C | 4.0-6.5 | Macroalgae | [219]”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [219] Ratuchne, A., and Knob, A. (2021). A New and Unusual β-Glucosidase from Aspergillus Fumigatus: Catalytic Activity at High Temperatures and Glucose Tolerance. Biocatal. Agric. Biotechnol., 35. source

In the paper

“Combining this method with other High energy requirement pretreatments significantly accelerates saccharification;”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [199] Yoon, 2012, Improvement of Saccharification Process for Bioethanol Production from Undaria sp. by Gamma Irradiation, Radiat. Phys. Chem. source
• Not checked yetcites [200] Budarin, 2011, Microwave-Mediated Pyrolysis of Macro-Algae, Green. Chem. source