Algal-Based Carbonaceous Materials for Environmental Remediation: Advances in Wastewater Treatment, Carbon Sequestration, and Biofuel Applications

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After screening abstracts based on predefined inclusion criteria, 1245 papers were selected for an in-depth full-text review.

“After a thorough screening of abstracts based on predefined inclusion criteria (relevance to algae-based environmental applications, peer-reviewed journal articles, publication date, availability of full text, language, scientific quality, and exclusion of redundant studies), 1245 papers were selected for an in-depth full-text review.”

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The reviewed literature spans several decades, covering research from the 1970s to 2024.

“The reviewed literature spans several decades, covering research from the 1970s to 2024.”

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Approximately 190 studies were incorporated into this analysis.

“Ultimately, approximately 190 studies were incorporated into this analysis.”

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Algal chars exhibit a moderate to high carbon content (10-60%) and high ash levels; high ash is detrimental for fuel applications but advantageous for wastewater treatment because mineral components enhance cation-exchange capacity.

“Additionally, algal chars exhibit a moderate to high carbon content (10-60%) and high ash levels, which, while detrimental for fuel applications, can be advantageous for wastewater treatment due to the presence of mineral components that enhance cation-exchange capacity [10].”

• cites [10] Chambers, 2023, Physical and Morphological Alteration of Sargassum-Derived Ultraporous Superactivated Hydrochar with Remarkable Cationic Dye Adsorption, Biomass Convers. Biorefinery sourceNot checked yet

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KOH activation has been reported to increase the BET surface area of algal hydrochar by up to two orders of magnitude, leading to improved removal efficiencies for heavy metals and organic dyes.

“For instance, KOH activation has been reported to increase the BET surface area of algal hydrochar by up to two orders of magnitude, leading to improved removal efficiencies for heavy metals and organic dyes [9].”

• cites [9] Elyemni, 2021, Mesoporous Carbon from Optimized Date Stone Hydrochar by Catalytic Hydrothermal Carbonization Using Response Surface Methodology: Application to Dyes Adsorption, Int. J. Chem. Eng.Not checked yet

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Hydrothermal carbonization conducted at lower temperatures (180-260°C) produces hydrochars rich in oxygenated functional groups with enhanced cation exchange capacities, making them effective for pollutant removal.

“Hydrothermal carbonization, conducted at lower temperatures (180-260 • C), produces hydrochars rich in oxygenated functional groups with enhanced cation exchange capacities, making them effective for pollutant removal.”

• Also stated in: § 1. Introduction · plain

  “Hydrothermal carbonization, conducted at moderate temperatures (180-260 • C), produces hydrochar, a carbon-rich solid with high concentrations of oxygenated functional groups and enhanced cation-exchange capacities, making it particularly effective for wastewater treatment [7].”

• cites [7] Magdziarz, A., Wilk, M., and Wądrzyk, M. (2019, January 23–28). Pyrolysis of Hydrochar Derived from Biomass—Experimental Investigation. Proceedings of the ECOS 2019—Proceedings of the 32nd International Conference on Efficiency, Cost, Optimization, Simulation and Environmental Impact of Energy Systems, Wroclaw, Poland.Not checked yet

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Advanced oxidation processes such as ozonation and UV-H2O2 are effective in degrading persistent contaminants but can be energy-intensive and require careful handling of reactive chemicals.

“Advanced oxidation processes, such as ozonation and UV-H 2 O 2 , are effective in degrading persistent contaminants but can be energy-intensive and require careful handling of reactive chemicals [3].”

• cites [3] Qi, Y., and He, K. (2025). Science and Technology for Water Purification: Achievements and Strategies. Water, 17. sourceNot checked yet

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Algal hydrochars have energy values in the range of 20-26 MJ/kg and are viable solid fuels for combustion and co-firing.

“Hydrochars, with energy values in the range of 20-26 MJ/kg, are viable solid fuels for combustion and co-firing, supporting renewable energy generation.”

• Also stated in: § 1. Introduction · plain

  “With energy values ranging from 20 to 26 MJ/kg, algal hydrochars can be utilized as solid fuels for direct combustion or co-firing with conventional fuels.”

• cites [14] Baghel, 2020, Seaweed Biorefinery: A Sustainable Process for Valorising the Biomass of Brown Seaweed, J. Clean. Prod. sourceNot checked yet

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Conventional treatment methods such as coagulation, flocculation, ion exchange, and membrane technologies are effective but hindered by high operational costs, energy consumption, and generation of secondary pollutants.

“Conventional treatment methods, such as coagulation, flocculation, ion exchange, and membrane technologies, while effective, are often hindered by high operational costs, energy consumption, and the generation of secondary pollutants [1].”

• cites [1] Briffa, 2020, Heavy Metal Pollution in the Environment and Their Toxicological Effects on Humans, Heliyon sourceNot checked yet

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Algal biomass is a promising feedstock for carbonaceous adsorbents because of its rapid growth, high photosynthetic efficiency, and ability to thrive in wastewater and on non-arable land.

“Algal biomass has emerged as a promising feedstock for the production of carbonaceous adsorbents due to its rapid growth, high photosynthetic efficiency, and ability to thrive in wastewater.”

• Also stated in: § 1. Introduction · plain

  “Algal biomass, characterized by rapid growth rates, high photosynthetic efficiency, and the ability to thrive on non-arable land and wastewater, emerges as a promising feedstock for the production of carbonaceous adsorbents [2].”

• cites [2] Ramesh, 2023, A Review on Algae Biosorption for the Removal of Hazardous Pollutants from Wastewater: Limiting Factors, Prospects and Recommendations, Environ. Pollut. sourceNot checked yet

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Application of algal biochars as soil amendments enhances long-term carbon storage and improves soil fertility.

“Their application as soil amendments enhances long-term carbon storage and improves soil fertility.”

• Also stated in: § 1. Introduction · plain

  “Furthermore, algal biochars can be utilized as soil amendments to promote carbon retention in agricultural lands, further contributing to long-term carbon storage and improved soil health [12].”

• cites [12] Sahu, 2024, Catalytic Strategies for Algal-Based Carbon Capture and Renewable Energy: A Review on a Sustainable Approach, Energy Convers. Manag. sourceNot checked yet

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Pyrolyzed algal biochars typically exhibit a moderate to high carbon content and a porous structure.

“Pyrolyzed algal biochars typically exhibit a moderate to high carbon content and a porous structure but require activation treatments (e.g., KOH or ZnCl 2 ) to enhance their surface area and adsorption capabilities.”

• Also stated in: § 1. Introduction · plain

  “Algal biochar typically exhibits a porous structure, a moderate to high carbon content, and oxygenated functional groups, with pyrolysis temperatures ranging from 300 to 650 • C.”

• cites [5] Nguyen, 2022, Toward New Low-Temperature Thermochemical Heat Storage Materials: Investigation of Hydration/Dehydration Behaviors of MgSO4/Hydroxyapatite Composite, Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells sourceNot checked yet

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• cites [6] Zeng, 2018, Preparation of Microporous Carbon from Sargassum Horneri by Hydrothermal Carbonization and KOH Activation for CO2 Capture, J. Chem. sourceNot checked yet

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Algal biomass plays a key role in biofuel production, particularly for biodiesel synthesis, where microalgae's high lipid content facilitates bio-oil generation.

“Additionally, algal biomass plays a key role in biofuel production, particularly for biodiesel synthesis, where microalgae's high lipid content facilitates bio-oil generation.”

• cites [13] Thanigaivel, 2023, Nanotechnology for Improved Production of Algal Biofuels: A Review, Environ. Chem. Lett. sourceNot checked yet

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Hydrothermal liquefaction is primarily designed for biocrude oil production and also generates solid residues with potential adsorptive applications.

“Hydrothermal liquefaction, primarily designed for biocrude oil production, also generates solid residues with potential adsorptive applications [8].”

• cites [8] Borah, D., Rout, J., and Nooruddin, T. (2023). Application of Nanotechnology in Bioenergy Production from Algae and Cyanobacteria. Modern Nanotechnology: Volume 2: Green Synthesis, Sustainable Energy and Impacts, Springer. sourceNot checked yet

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Integration of algal-derived biochars and hydrochars into bioenergy systems allows waste valorization, pollution control, and energy recovery, contributing to a sustainable circular economy.

“Furthermore, the integration of these materials into bioenergy systems allows for waste valorization, pollution control, and energy recovery, contributing to a sustainable circular economy.”

• cites [13] Thanigaivel, 2023, Nanotechnology for Improved Production of Algal Biofuels: A Review, Environ. Chem. Lett. sourceNot checked yet

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Algae play a fundamental role in global ecosystems by contributing to primary production, supporting food chains, and maintaining biodiversity.

“These organisms play a fundamental role in global ecosystems by contributing to primary production, supporting food chains, and maintaining biodiversity [17].”

• cites [17] Vatsha, P., and Alam, M.R. (2024). Environmental Aspects of Biofuels Used as Sustainable Energy Resources: Current Situation and Future Trends. Biofuels and Sustainability Life Cycle Assessments, System Biology, Policies, and Emerging Technologies, Elsevier. sourceNot checked yet

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Heavy metals and other pollutants are toxic and non-biodegradable, accumulate in tissues of flora, fauna, and humans, and cause severe health consequences such as central nervous system damage, dermatitis, cancer, kidney failure, and impairments to liver and reproductive functions.

“Given their toxic and non-biodegradable nature, these pollutants tend to accumulate in the tissues of flora, fauna, and humans, leading to severe health consequences such as central nervous system damage, dermatitis, cancer, kidney failure, and impairments to liver and reproductive functions [2].”

• cites [2] Ramesh, 2023, A Review on Algae Biosorption for the Removal of Hazardous Pollutants from Wastewater: Limiting Factors, Prospects and Recommendations, Environ. Pollut. sourceNot checked yet

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Algal biochars can adsorb CO2 and store it in a stable form, making them valuable in climate change mitigation strategies.

“Algal biochars have been explored for their ability to adsorb CO 2 and store it in a stable form, making them valuable in climate change mitigation strategies.”

• cites [12] Sahu, 2024, Catalytic Strategies for Algal-Based Carbon Capture and Renewable Energy: A Review on a Sustainable Approach, Energy Convers. Manag. sourceNot checked yet

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This review was carried out through a structured approach involving collection, classification, analysis, and synthesis of information following the PRISMA guidelines.

“This review was carried out through a structured approach involving the collection, classification, analysis, and synthesis of information following the PRISMA guidelines [15].”

• cites [15] Selcuk, 2019, A Guide for Systematic Reviews: PRISMA, Turk. Arch. Otorhinolaryngol. sourceNot checked yet

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Algae include both prokaryotic species such as cyanobacteria and eukaryotic species such as green algae, diatoms, and golden algae.

“As a polyphyletic group, algae include both prokaryotic species, such as cyanobacteria (blue-green algae), and eukaryotic species like green algae (Chlorophyceae), diatoms (Bacillariophyceae), and golden algae (Chrysophyceae) [16].”

• cites [16] Kumar, 2021, A State of the Art Review on the Cultivation of Algae for Energy and Other Valuable Products: Application, Challenges, and Opportunities, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. sourceNot checked yet

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Increased frequency and intensity of extreme weather events such as droughts, floods, and storms pose challenges to the stability of biomass production systems, disrupting water and nutrients and leading to variability in raw materials, potentially affecting efficiency, scalability, and economic viability.

“In addition to these direct impacts on biomass productivity, the increased frequency and intensity of extreme weather events-such as droughts, floods, and storms-pose considerable challenges to the stability of biomass production systems.Such events can disrupt the availability of essential resources, including water and nutrients, which are vital for consistent and high-quality biomass cult”

• cites [25] Stevenson, 2014, Ecological Assessments with Algae: A Review and Synthesis, J. Phycol. sourceNot checked yet

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Hydrochars typically exhibit relatively low surface area and porosity, but chemically active functional groups such as ketone, carboxyl, and hydroxyl groups endow them with adequate adsorption capabilities.

“Although hydrochars typically exhibit relatively low surface area and porosity, the presence of chemically active functional groups-namely ketone, carboxyl (COOH), and hydroxyl groups-on their surfaces endows them with adequate adsorption capabilities [31].”

• cites [31] Santos Santana, M., Pereira Alves, R., da Silva Borges, W.M., Francisquini, E., and Guerreiro, M.C. (2020). Hydrochar Production from Defective Coffee Beans by Hydrothermal Carbonization. Bioresour. Technol., 300. sourceNot checked yet

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Variations in pH and salinity introduce osmotic and ionic stresses that influence cell wall composition and synthesis of compatible solutes, leading to modifications in carbon-rich biomolecules and impacting the structural properties and reactivity of derived carbon materials.

“Additionally, variations in pH and salinity introduce osmotic and ionic stresses that influence cell wall composition and the synthesis of compatible solutes.Such environmental stresses lead to modifications in the types and arrangements of carbon-rich biomolecules within the cells, ultimately impacting the structural properties and reactivity of the derived carbon materials.”

• cites [22] Hu, Q. (2013). Environmental Effects on Cell Composition. Handbook of Microalgal Culture: Applied Phycology and Biotechnology, Wiley. [2nd ed.]. sourceNot checked yet

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Machine learning models such as support vector machines and artificial neural networks optimized HTC parameters and enabled the design of hydrochars with tailored properties.

“The optimization of HTC parameters was achieved using machine learning models such as support vector machines and artificial neural networks.These predictive tools enhanced the understanding of complex parameter interdependencies, enabling the design of hydrochars with tailored properties for specific applications.”

• cites [29] Rasam, 2021, Physico-Chemical Properties Prediction of Hydrochar in Macroalgae Sargassum Horneri Hydrothermal Carbonisation, Int. J. Environ. Anal. Chem. sourceNot checked yet

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Elevated CO2 concentrations enhance photosynthetic carbon fixation, potentially increasing the proportion of carbon incorporated into structural and storage compounds.

“Elevated CO2 concentrations also enhance photosynthetic carbon fixation, potentially increasing the proportion of carbon incorporated into structural and storage compounds [24].”

• cites [24] Richmond, A. (2017). Cell Response to Environmental Factors. CRC Handbook of Microalgal Mass Culture, CRC Press.Not checked yet

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Algal biochars derived from biofuel production residues can be repurposed for environmental applications, creating a closed-loop system that maximizes resource efficiency.

“Additionally, algal biochars derived from biofuel production residues can be repurposed for environmental applications, creating a closed-loop system that maximizes resource efficiency.”

• cites [13] Thanigaivel, 2023, Nanotechnology for Improved Production of Algal Biofuels: A Review, Environ. Chem. Lett. sourceNot checked yet

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Energy densification ratios of S. horneri-derived hydrochar increased with reaction severity, indicating effective dehydration and decarboxylation during HTC.

“The energy densification ratios increased with reaction severity, indicating effective dehydration and decarboxylation during HTC.”

• cites [29] Rasam, 2021, Physico-Chemical Properties Prediction of Hydrochar in Macroalgae Sargassum Horneri Hydrothermal Carbonisation, Int. J. Environ. Anal. Chem. sourceNot checked yet

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Climate change, characterized by rising global temperatures, altered precipitation patterns, and increased atmospheric CO2 concentrations, directly impacts biomass sources used as precursors in carbon material production, affecting growth rates and biochemical composition of algae and thereby altering carbon fixation efficiency and quality of resulting carbon materials.

“Climate change, characterized by rising global temperatures, altered precipitation patterns, and increased atmospheric CO2 concentrations, directly impacts the biomass sources used as precursors in carbon material production.For instance, variations in these environmental parameters may affect the growth rates and biochemical composition of algae, a critical feedstock, thereby altering both the ef”

• cites [2] Ramesh, 2023, A Review on Algae Biosorption for the Removal of Hazardous Pollutants from Wastewater: Limiting Factors, Prospects and Recommendations, Environ. Pollut. sourceNot checked yet

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Microalgae are microscopic, single-celled organisms that thrive in freshwater, brackish water, and marine systems; they exhibit high photosynthetic efficiency and rapid reproduction, making them well-suited for large-scale biomass production.

“In contrast, microalgae are microscopic, single-celled organisms that thrive in a wide range of aquatic environments, including freshwater, brackish water, and marine systems.These organisms exhibit high photosynthetic efficiency and rapid reproduction, making them well-suited for large-scale biomass production [20].”

• cites [20] Gaurav, 2024, Microalgae-Based Biodiesel Production and Its Challenges and Future Opportunities: A Review, Green Technol. Sustain. sourceNot checked yet

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Thermochemical processes such as pyrolysis and hydrothermal liquefaction can convert algal biomass into bio-oil, which can be further upgraded into transportation fuels.

“Thermochemical processes such as pyrolysis and hydrothermal liquefaction can convert algal biomass into bio-oil, which can be further upgraded into transportation fuels.”

• cites [13] Thanigaivel, 2023, Nanotechnology for Improved Production of Algal Biofuels: A Review, Environ. Chem. Lett. sourceNot checked yet

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Climate change is expected to drive shifts in environmental policies and regulatory frameworks, compelling industries to adopt more sustainable practices and incentivizing investments in research and development.

“Moreover, the broader implications of climate change are expected to drive significant shifts in environmental policies and regulatory frameworks.As governments and international bodies implement more stringent measures to mitigate climate change, industries involved in the production of carbon materials may be compelled to adopt more sustainable practices and technologies.This regulatory evolut”

• cites [25] Stevenson, 2014, Ecological Assessments with Algae: A Review and Synthesis, J. Phycol. sourceNot checked yet

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Macroalgae are large, multicellular organisms commonly found in marine environments; their growth rate is relatively slow, but their substantial biomass contributes significantly to carbon sequestration.

“Macroalgae, often referred to as seaweeds, are large, multicellular organisms commonly found in marine environments, where they attach to surfaces such as rocks and coral reefs.Although their growth rate is relatively slow, their substantial biomass contributes significantly to carbon sequestration [19].”

• cites [19] Moreda, 2024, Role of Macroalgal Forests within Mediterranean Shallow Bays in Blue Carbon Storage, Sci. Total Environ. sourceNot checked yet

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Hydrothermal carbonization typically occurs at temperatures ranging from 180 to 250°C and pressures between 2 and 6 MPa.

“The HTC process typically occurs at temperatures ranging from 180 to 250 • C and pressures between 2 and 6 MPa [30].”

• cites [30] Zhang, 2019, Insights into Biochar and Hydrochar Production and Applications: A Review, Energy sourceNot checked yet

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Small particle sizes and higher catalyst loads were associated with higher BET surface areas and energy recovery efficiencies.

“For instance, small particle sizes and higher catalyst loads were associated with higher BET surface areas and energy recovery efficiencies, demonstrating the role of feedstock preparation and process intensification.”

• cites [29] Rasam, 2021, Physico-Chemical Properties Prediction of Hydrochar in Macroalgae Sargassum Horneri Hydrothermal Carbonisation, Int. J. Environ. Anal. Chem. sourceNot checked yet

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Temperature affects metabolic rates and enzymatic activities in algae; moderate increases enhance metabolic processes and carbon assimilation, while extreme temperatures shift metabolic pathways and redirect carbon flux to storage compounds, altering carbon materials.

“Temperature is another crucial factor that affects metabolic rates and enzymatic activities in algae.Moderate increases in temperature generally enhance metabolic processes and promote efficient carbon assimilation, while extreme temperatures may lead to stress responses that shift metabolic pathways.Under such stress, algae often redirect carbon flux from growth-related processes to the accum”

• cites [23] Davison, 1991, Environmental Effects on Algal Photosynthesis: Temperature, J. Phycol. sourceNot checked yet

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Algal-derived hydrochars offer a sustainable approach to environmental remediation and energy recovery.

“Algal-derived hydrochars offer a sustainable approach to environmental remediation and energy recovery.”

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Algal biomass valorization has potential to mitigate water pollution and reduce reliance on fossil-derived adsorbents.

“These findings underscore the potential of algal biomass valorization to mitigate water pollution and reduce reliance on fossil-derived adsorbents.”

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Chambers et al. (2024) produced ultraporous superactivated hydrochar from Sargassum using HTC followed by KOH activation; activation enhanced the surface area up to 1404 m2/g.

“Chambers et al., 2024 [10], examined the production of ultraporous superactivated hydrochar (SAH) from Sargassum using HTC followed by KOH activation.The HTC process was conducted at temperatures of 180, 220, and 260 • C, while activation enhanced the surface area, reaching up to 1404 m 2 /g.”

• cites [10] Chambers, 2023, Physical and Morphological Alteration of Sargassum-Derived Ultraporous Superactivated Hydrochar with Remarkable Cationic Dye Adsorption, Biomass Convers. Biorefinery sourceNot checked yet

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Advancements in HTC and post-treatment processes such as activation enable tailoring of hydrochar properties to meet specific application demands.

“Advancements in HTC and post-treatment processes, such as activation, enable the tailoring of hydrochar properties to meet specific application demands.”

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MgSi-HC maximum adsorption capacities for Cu(II) and Zn(II) were 214.7 mg/g and 227.3 mg/g, respectively.

“Adsorption isotherm studies determined the maximum adsorption capacities for Cu(II) and Zn(II) as 214.7 mg/g and 227.3 mg/g, respectively [47].”

• cites [47] Wu, 2021, Potassium Hydroxide-Modified Algae-Based Biochar for the Removal of Sulfamethoxazole: Sorption Performance and Mechanisms, J. Environ. Manag. sourceNot checked yet

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Hydrochar-based sorbents offer a sustainable and cost-effective approach for heavy metal removal, but their full potential remains untapped.

“As can be observed, hydrochar-based sorbents offer a sustainable and costeffective approach for heavy metal removal, but their full potential remains untapped.”

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MgSi-HC hydrochar composite from sawdust modified with magnesium and silicon had increased specific area and highly porous structure, improving adsorption potential for Cu(II) and Zn(II).

“This modification resulted in an increased specific area and a highly porous structure, significantly improving its adsorption potential.”

• cites [47] Wu, 2021, Potassium Hydroxide-Modified Algae-Based Biochar for the Removal of Sulfamethoxazole: Sorption Performance and Mechanisms, J. Environ. Manag. sourceNot checked yet

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The adsorption kinetics of Rhodamine B on S. muticum hydrochars followed a pseudo-second-order model, indicating chemisorption as the dominant mechanism.

“The adsorption kinetics followed a pseudo-second-order model, indicating chemisorption as the dominant mechanism.”

• cites [11] Spagnuolo, 2023, Hydrochar from Sargassum Muticum: A Sustainable Approach for High-Capacity Removal of Rhodamine B Dye, RSC Sustain. sourceNot checked yet

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S. horneri-based hydrochars excel in energy recovery and fuel applications, while S. muticum-derived hydrochars show high efficiency in dye removal from aqueous solutions.

“While S. horneri-based hydrochars excel in energy recovery and fuel applications, S. muticum-derived hydrochars showcase high efficiency in dye removal from aqueous solutions.”

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Hydrochar-based sorbents have shown remarkable adsorption capacities and tunable surface chemistries, making them strong candidates for scalable water purification technologies.

“These materials have shown remarkable adsorption capacities and tunable surface chemistries, making them strong candidates for scalable water purification technologies.”

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Nitrogen-doped hydrochar synthesized from corncob biomass and chemically modified with NH4Cl achieved adsorption capacities of 1.223 mmol/g for Cu(II) and 1.995 mmol/g for Cr(VI), surpassing unmodified hydrochar.

“The hydrochar was chemically modified with NH 4 Cl, which significantly enhanced its adsorption efficiency, achieving capacities of 1.223 mmol/g for Cu(II) and 1.995 mmol/g for Cr(VI), surpassing those of the unmodified hydrochar.”

• cites [54] Kim, 2023, Synergistic Effect in Simultaneous Removal of Cationic and Anionic Heavy Metals by Nitrogen Heteroatom Doped Hydrochar from Aqueous Solutions, Chemosphere sourceNot checked yet

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Rich in proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates, algae contribute to biochars with enhanced functional groups and superior pollutant adsorption capabilities.

“Rich in proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates, algae contribute to the creation of biochars with enhanced functional groups and superior pollutant adsorption capabilities [60].”

• cites [60] 2023, Sargassum Biomass-Derived Biochars for Ibuprofen Removal from Water: Adsorption and Kinetics, MRS Adv. sourceNot checked yet

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ABB plays a dual role in soil remediation by reducing contamination and enhancing soil fertility.

“In the realm of soil remediation, ABB plays a dual role in reducing contamination and enhancing soil fertility [67].”

• cites [67] Ighalo, 2025, Biochar for Ameliorating Soil Fertility and Microbial Diversity: From Production to Action of the Black Gold, iScience sourceNot checked yet

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Algae-based biochars derived from microalgae and macroalgae outperform terrestrial plant-based biochars in several applications primarily because of unique algal composition.

“Algae-based biochars, derived from both microalgae and macroalgae, outperform terrestrial plant-based biochars in several applications, primarily because of the unique composition of algae.”

• cites [60] 2023, Sargassum Biomass-Derived Biochars for Ibuprofen Removal from Water: Adsorption and Kinetics, MRS Adv. sourceNot checked yet

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Spirulina sp. demonstrated Cu2+ adsorption after pyrolysis at 200 °C, with adsorption behavior aligning with Redlich-Peterson isotherm and pseudo-second-order kinetics.

“Other notable microalgae include Spirulina sp., which demonstrated Cu 2+ adsorption after pyrolysis at 200 • C, with adsorption behavior aligning with the Redlich-Peterson isotherm and pseudo-second-order kinetics [89].”

• cites [89] Moon, 2023, Adsorption of Heavy Metals and Bisphenol A from Wastewater Using Spirulina Sp.-Based Biochar as an Effective Adsorbent: A Preliminary Study, J. Appl. Phycol. sourceNot checked yet

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Integration of algal biofuel production and carbon capture catalytic approaches represents a promising frontier in sustainable energy and environmental preservation.

“The integration of algal biofuel production and carbon capture catalytic approaches represents a promising frontier in sustainable energy and environmental preservation.”

May combine two claims.

ABB significantly improves soil properties by enhancing nutrient retention, cation exchange capacity, and water-holding abilities.

“Beyond pollutant mitigation, ABB significantly improves soil properties by enhancing nutrient retention [70], cation exchange capacity [71], and water-holding abilities [72].”

• cites [70] Yu, 2019, Biochar Amendment Improves Crop Production in Problem Soils: A Review, J. Environ. Manag. sourceNot checked yet

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• cites [71] Pandey, 2025, Biochar Application in Constructed Wetlands for Wastewater Treatment: A Critical Review, J. Water Process Eng. sourceNot checked yet

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• cites [72] Waheed, A., Xu, H., Qiao, X., Aili, A., Yiremaikebayi, Y., Haitao, D., and Muhammad, M. (2025). Biochar in Sustainable Agriculture and Climate Mitigation: Mechanisms, Challenges, and Applications in the Circular Bioeconomy. Biomass Bioenergy, 193. sourceNot checked yet

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Enteromorpha prolifera pyrolyzed at 500 °C with KOH activation at 700 °C had Cd2+ adsorption capacity of 5.84 mg/g, following Langmuir isotherm and pseudo-second-order kinetics.

“When pyrolyzed at 500 • C with KOH activation at 700 • C, the resulting biochar had a Cd 2+ adsorption capacity of 5.84 mg/g, following the Langmuir isotherm and pseudo-second-order kinetics [84].”

• cites [84] Wang, 2021, Removal of Cadmium in Water by Potassium Hydroxide Activated Biochar Produced from Enteromorpha Prolifera, J. Water Process Eng. sourceNot checked yet

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Some biochars exhibit low efficiency for metals such as Co2+ and As3+, raising concerns about selectivity and ability to remove multiple contaminants simultaneously.

“Additionally, while some biochars exhibit impressive adsorption capacities, others show relatively low efficiency, particularly for metals such as Co 2+ and As 3+ .This raises concerns about the selectivity of these materials and their ability to remove multiple contaminants simultaneously.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Energy requirements for high-temperature pyrolysis or hydrothermal processing could offset environmental benefits if not optimized.

“Additionally, the energy requirements for high-temperature pyrolysis or hydrothermal processing could offset the environmental benefits if not optimized.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Algae-based biochar represents a transformative material in environmental remediation, offering sustainable solutions for water, soil, and air pollution.

“As a partial conclusion, algae-based biochar represents a transformative material in environmental remediation, offering sustainable solutions for water, soil, and air pollution.”

May combine two claims.

Enteromorpha prolifera pretreated with H3PO4 for 12 h before pyrolysis at 500 °C had Cd2+ adsorption capacity of 423 mg/g, with intra-particle diffusion playing a crucial role.

“However, when pretreated with H 3 PO 4 for 12 h before undergoing pyrolysis at 500 • C, the adsorption capacity significantly increased to 423 mg/g, with intra-particle diffusion playing a crucial role [85].”

• cites [85] Li, 2020, Comparison of Adsorption Properties for Cadmium Removal from Aqueous Solution by Enteromorpha Prolifera Biochar Modified with Different Chemical Reagents, Environ. Res. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Macrocystis pyrifera exhibited Cu2+ adsorption capacity of 119.9 mg/g when pyrolyzed at 450 °C under N2 for one hour, with intra-particle diffusion governing kinetics.

“Among the macroalgae, Macrocystis pyrifera exhibited a significant Cu 2+ adsorption capacity of 119.9 mg/g when subjected to pyrolysis at 450 • C under a N 2 atmosphere for one hour, with intra-particle diffusion governing the adsorption kinetics [82].”

• cites [82] Araya, M., Rivas, J., Sepúlveda, G., Espinoza-González, C., Lira, S., Meynard, A., Blanco, E., Escalona, N., Ginocchio, R., and Garrido-Ramírez, E. (2021). Effect of Pyrolysis Temperature on Copper Aqueous Removal Capability of Biochar Derived from the Kelp Macrocystis Pyrifera. Appl. Sci., 11. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Chlorella sp. and Spirulina sp. biochars pyrolyzed at 600 °C exhibited Pb2+ adsorption capacities of 131.41 mg/g and 154.51 mg/g, respectively, both following Langmuir isotherm and pseudo-second-order kinetics.

“Additionally, Chlorella sp. and Spirulina sp.biochars pyrolyzed at 600 • C exhibited Pb 2+ adsorption capacities of 131.41 mg/g and 154.51 mg/g, respectively, both following Langmuir isotherm models and pseudo-secondorder kinetics [90].”

• cites [90] Yang, 2021, The Effect of Carbonization Temperature on the Capacity and Mechanisms of Pb(II) Adsorption by Microalgae Residue-Derived Biochar, Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Red macroalgae treated via hydrothermal carbonization at 200 °C with FeCl3 impregnation achieved As3+ adsorption capacity of 3.8314 mg/g, following Langmuir isotherm and pseudo-second-order kinetics.

“Similarly, red macroalgae treated via hydrothermal carbonization at 200 • C with FeCl 3 impregnation achieved an As 3+ adsorption capacity of 3.8314 mg/g, following a Langmuir isotherm model and pseudo-second-order kinetics [83].”

• cites [83] Khanzada, A.K., Rizwan, M., Al-Hazmi, H.E., Majtacz, J., Kurniawan, T.A., and Mąkinia, J. (2023). Removal of Arsenic from Wastewater Using Hydrochar Prepared from Red Macroalgae: Investigating Its Adsorption Efficiency and Mechanism. Water, 15. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Many ABBs suffer from underdeveloped pore structures and limited active sites, which reduce their adsorption capacities.

“Many ABBs suffer from underdeveloped pore structures and limited active sites, which reduce their adsorption capacities.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Most studies are conducted under controlled laboratory conditions with synthetic solutions, which may not accurately represent industrial or municipal wastewater.

“Most studies are conducted under controlled laboratory conditions with synthetic solutions, which may not accurately represent industrial or municipal wastewater.”

May combine two claims.

Ascophyllum nodosum biochar derived from pyrolysis at 700 °C followed by FeCl3 and FeCl2 coprecipitation achieved Cu2+ adsorption capacity of 53.19 mg/g, with pseudo-second-order kinetics dominating.

“Meanwhile, Ascophyllum nodosum biochar, derived from pyrolysis at 700 • C followed by FeCl 3 and FeCl 2 coprecipitation, achieved a Cu 2+ adsorption capacity of 53.19 mg/g, with pseudo-second-order kinetics dominating the adsorption process [86].”

• cites [86] Kumar, P., Patel, A.K., Singhania, R.R., Chen, C.W., Saratale, R.G., and Dong, C. (2023). Di Enhanced Copper (II) Bioremediation from Wastewater Using Nano Magnetite (Fe3O4) Modified Biochar of Ascophyllum Nodosum. Bioresour. Technol., 388. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Real-world applicability of these adsorbents depends on their performance in complex wastewater matrices, where competing ions and organic matter may interfere with adsorption.

“From a practical standpoint, the real-world applicability of these adsorbents depends on their performance in complex wastewater matrices, where competing ions and organic matter may interfere with adsorption.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

UV/H2O2 advanced oxidation processes provide a green alternative to conventional modification methods, significantly enhancing ABB's performance without contributing to secondary pollution.

“Among the more sustainable approaches, UV/H 2 O 2 advanced oxidation processes provide a green alternative to conventional modification methods, significantly enhancing ABB's performance without contributing to secondary pollution.”

May combine two claims.

Integration of metal oxides like Fe2O3 into biochar structures improves catalytic properties and facilitates removal of complex contaminants like uranium.

“Meanwhile, the integration of metal oxides like Fe 2 O 3 into biochar structures not only improves catalytic properties but also facilitates the removal of complex contaminants like uranium [81].”

• cites [81] Wang, 2020, Adsorption and Fenton-like Removal of Chelated Nickel from Zn-Ni Alloy Electroplating Wastewater Using Activated Biochar Composite Derived from Taihu Blue Algae, Chem. Eng. J. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Repeated adsorption-desorption cycles could lead to structural degradation or reduced adsorption capacity, which may affect economic feasibility for large-scale applications.

“Repeated adsorption-desorption cycles could lead to structural degradation or reduced adsorption capacity, which may affect economic feasibility for large-scale applications [46].”

• cites [46] Wang, 2023, Review on Application of Algae-Based Biochars in Environmental Remediation: Progress, Challenge and Perspectives, J. Environ. Chem. Eng. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Algal biomass cultivation and harvesting can be resource-intensive, particularly when grown under controlled conditions.

“Algal biomass cultivation and harvesting can be resourceintensive, particularly when grown under controlled conditions.”

May combine two claims.

There is a lack of standardized protocols for optimizing pyrolysis temperature, activation techniques, and chemical modifications, making it difficult to compare results across studies and scale up technology.

“However, there is a lack of standardized protocols for optimizing these parameters, making it difficult to compare results across studies and scale up the technology for real-world applications.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Catalysts are instrumental in enhancing reaction rates and yields, rendering HTL process economically viable.

“Catalysts are instrumental in enhancing reaction rates and yields, rendering the process economically viable.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Gasification converts biomass into a combustible gas mixture through partial oxidation.

“Gasification, on the other hand, converts biomass into a combustible gas mixture through partial oxidation.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Emerging methods including bio-flocculation and electrocoagulation have shown promise in reducing energy consumption and operational costs.

“Emerging methods, including bio-flocculation and electrocoagulation, have shown promise in reducing energy consumption and operational costs.”

May combine two claims.

Hybrid processes combining hydrothermal liquefaction with subsequent catalytic upgrading have shown enhanced conversion efficiencies and improved fuel properties.

“Hybrid processes that combine hydrothermal liquefaction with subsequent catalytic upgrading have shown enhanced conversion efficiencies and improved fuel properties.”

• cites [98] Poornima, 2024, Biofuel and Biochemical Production through Biomass Transformation Using Advanced Thermochemical and Biochemical Processes—A Review, Fuel sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Techniques such as flocculation, centrifugation, and membrane filtration are commonly employed for harvesting algal biomass.

“Techniques such as flocculation, centrifugation, and membrane filtration are commonly employed [95].”

• cites [95] Ijaola, 2024, Algae as a Potential Source of Protein: A Review on Cultivation, Harvesting, Extraction, and Applications, Algal Res. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Efficient harvesting of algal biomass remains one of the most critical challenges in algal biofuel production.

“The efficient harvesting of algal biomass remains one of the most critical challenges in algal biofuel production.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Conventional solvent extraction methods such as hexane extraction or the Bligh and Dyer method are widely used for their efficiency in extracting microalgal lipids.

“Conventional solvent extraction methods, such as hexane extraction [110] or the Bligh and Dyer method [111], are widely used for their efficiency in extracting lipids.”

• cites [110] Nasernejad, 2015, Oil Extraction from Algae: A Comparative Approach, Biotechnol. Appl. Biochem. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [111] Rathinavel, L., Ravikumar, Y., Jothinathan, D., Pandey, A., and Mahata, C. (2024). Extraction and Enrichment of Fatty Acids from Marine Microalgae. Marine Molecules from Algae and Cyanobacteria: Extraction, Purification, Toxicology and Applications, Elsevier. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Algae are natural carbon sinks, and their cultivation plays a pivotal role in mitigating CO2 emissions and contributing to climate change abatement.

“This inherent ability establishes algae as natural carbon sinks, with their cultivation playing a pivotal role in mitigating CO 2 emissions and contributing to climate change abatement.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Algae are exceptional carbon fixers, utilizing photosynthesis to absorb CO2 and convert it into organic substances, primarily lipids and carbohydrates.

“Algae are exceptional carbon fixers, utilizing photosynthesis to absorb CO 2 from the atmosphere and convert it into organic substances, primarily lipids and carbohydrates (Figure 3).”

May combine two claims.

Integration of biochemical conversion with advanced biotechnological approaches has potential to enhance overall yields and reduce processing costs.

“The integration of biochemical conversion with advanced biotechnological approaches has the potential to enhance overall yields and reduce processing costs [97].”

• cites [97] Kannah, 2021, A Mini Review of Biochemical Conversion of Algal Biorefinery, Energy Fuels sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Anaerobic digestion of algal biomass produces biogas primarily composed of methane, while fermentation processes convert carbohydrates into ethanol and other bioalcohols.

“The anaerobic digestion of algal biomass produces biogas, primarily composed of methane, while fermentation processes convert carbohydrates into ethanol and other bioalcohols.”

May combine two claims.

Modifications to Chlamydomonas reinhardtii and Synechocystis sp. have improved their resilience to environmental stressors while optimizing light-harvesting pathways for accelerated growth.

“For instance, modifications to Chlamydomonas reinhardtii and Synechocystis sp. have improved their resilience to environmental stressors while optimizing light-harvesting pathways for accelerated growth.”

• cites [108] Patel, 2023, Recent Progress and Challenges in CRISPR-Cas9 Engineered Algae and Cyanobacteria, Algal Res. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Hydrothermal liquefaction operates at high pressures and moderate temperatures to produce bio-crude oil, which can be further refined into transportation fuels.

“Hydrothermal liquefaction operates at high pressures and moderate temperatures to produce bio-crude oil, which can be further refined into transportation fuels.”

May combine two claims.

Overexpressing fructose-1,6-bisphosphate aldolase in Chlorella vulgaris facilitates regeneration of ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate in the Calvin cycle, improving energy transfer within photosystems and enhancing carbon fixation efficiency.

“Their research suggests that overexpressing this enzyme facilitates the regeneration of ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate in the Calvin cycle, improving energy transfer within photosystems and ultimately enhancing carbon fixation efficiency.”

• cites [105] Yang, 2017, Genetic Engineering of the Calvin Cycle toward Enhanced Photosynthetic CO2 Fixation in Microalgae, Biotechnol. Biofuels sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Genetic engineering techniques enable precise insertion of exogenous DNA or external induction mechanisms, leading to genetically optimized microalgal strains with enhanced biomass production, increased cell density, and improved CO2 capture efficiency.

“Similarly, Hlavova et al., 2015 [106], conducted an extensive review of genetic engineering strategies for modifying microalgal traits.These techniques enable the precise insertion of exogenous DNA or external induction mechanisms, leading to genetically optimized strains with enhanced biomass production, increased cell density, and improved CO 2 capture efficiency.”

• cites Hlavova et al., 2015 [106] sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Thermochemical processes such as pyrolysis, gasification, and hydrothermal liquefaction convert algal biomass into liquid and gaseous fuels.

“Thermochemical processes, such as pyrolysis, gasification, and hydrothermal liquefaction, convert algal biomass into liquid and gaseous fuels.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Lipid biosynthesis in algae is regulated by environmental factors such as nutrient availability, light intensity, and temperature.

“Lipid biosynthesis in algae is intricately regulated by environmental factors such as nutrient availability, light intensity, and temperature.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Algae do not compete with food production since they can be cultivated in saline, brackish, or wastewater, reducing pressure on arable land.

“Unlike terrestrial energy crops, algae do not compete with food production since they can be cultivated in saline, brackish, or wastewater, thereby reducing pressure on arable land.”

May combine two claims.

Algal-based biofuels have emerged as a promising solution due to high photosynthetic efficiency, rapid growth rates, and ability to thrive on non-arable land.

“Among these, algal-based biofuels have emerged as a promising solution due to their high photosynthetic efficiency, rapid growth rates, and ability to thrive on non-arable land [92].”

• cites [92] Kumar, 2023, A Review on the Contribution of Nanotechnology for Biofuel Production from Algal Biomass: A Bridge to the Reduction of Carbon Footprint, Sustain. Energy Technol. Assess.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Open pond systems are scalable and have low operating costs but may face challenges related to evaporation and contamination.

“These systems are scalable and have low operating costs but may face challenges related to evaporation and contamination [102].”

• cites [102] Quiroz, 2024, Implications of Pond Reliability on the Techno-Economic and Life Cycle Environmental Impacts of Algal Biofuels, J. Clean. Prod. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

PBRs offer superior control over light, temperature, and nutrient supply, leading to higher biomass yields and more consistent product quality.

“In contrast, PBRs offer superior control over parameters such as light, temperature, and nutrient supply, leading to higher biomass yields and more consistent product quality [94].”

• cites [94] Zhang, 2024, Sustainable Microalgae Cultivation: A Comprehensive Review of Open and Enclosed Systems for Biofuel and High Value Compound Production, E3S Web of Conferences sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Photobioreactors, while more expensive to set up, have potential for year-round cultivation, lower contamination risks, and increased production.

“While more expensive to set up, photobioreactors have the potential for year-round cultivation, lower contamination risks, and increased production [94].”

• cites [94] Zhang, 2024, Sustainable Microalgae Cultivation: A Comprehensive Review of Open and Enclosed Systems for Biofuel and High Value Compound Production, E3S Web of Conferences sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Biochemical conversion routes include anaerobic digestion and fermentation.

“Biochemical conversion routes include anaerobic digestion and fermentation.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Pyrolysis involves thermal decomposition of biomass in absence of oxygen, yielding bio-oil, char, and syngas.

“Pyrolysis involves the thermal decomposition of biomass in the absence of oxygen, yielding bio-oil, char, and syngas.”

May combine two claims.

Gasification of algal biomass generates synthesis gas (syngas) that can be further refined into liquid biofuels or valuable chemicals.

“Additionally, the gasification of algal biomass generates synthesis gas (syngas) that can be further refined into liquid biofuels or valuable chemicals.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Open ponds have low operational costs and are widely used for large-scale production, albeit with limited control over environmental conditions.

“Open ponds, due to their low operational costs, are widely used for large-scale production, albeit with limited control over environmental conditions.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

The stability and efficiency of genetically engineered algae in open-pond or industrial-scale bioreactors remain uncertain.

“While genetically engineered algae have demonstrated enhanced performance in controlled environments, their stability and efficiency in open-pond or industrial-scale bioreactors remain uncertain.”

May combine two claims.

Metabolic engineering strategies such as modifying enzyme expression levels, altering protein structures for increased stability, and optimizing key metabolic reactions enhance CO2-to-biomass conversion in algae.

“Brar et al., 2021 [107], highlighted strategies such as modifying enzyme expression levels, altering protein structures for increased stability, and optimizing key metabolic reactions to enhance CO 2 -to-biomass conversion.”

• cites Brar et al., 2021 [107]Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Biochemical conversion of algal biomass is often limited by structural complexity of the cell wall; pretreatment methods such as mechanical disruption, enzymatic hydrolysis, or acid treatments are required to improve conversion efficiency.

“The biochemical conversion of algal biomass is often limited by the structural complexity of the cell wall; thus, pretreatment methods such as mechanical disruption, enzymatic hydrolysis, or acid treatments are required to improve conversion efficiency.”

May combine two claims.

Mixed cultures can suppress the proliferation of pathogens and unwanted contaminants, reducing the risk of culture crashes.

“Additionally, mixed cultures can suppress the proliferation of pathogens and unwanted contaminants, reducing the risk of culture crashes.”

May combine two claims.

Conventional solvent extraction techniques often require large volumes of toxic organic solvents, raising environmental and safety concerns.

“However, these techniques often require large volumes of toxic organic solvents, raising environmental and safety concerns.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The long-term stability of mixed-culture systems under outdoor conditions is still not fully understood, as interactions between species can shift over time, potentially leading to competitive imbalances.

“The long-term stability of mixed-culture systems under outdoor conditions is still not fully understood, as interactions between species can shift over time, potentially leading to competitive imbalances.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Algae-based systems can be utilized for wastewater treatment, removing nutrients and contaminants while simultaneously producing valuable biomass.

“Algae-based systems can be utilized for wastewater treatment, removing nutrients and contaminants while simultaneously producing valuable biomass.”

May combine two claims.

Algae can facilitate the breakdown of sludge residues and contribute to more stable combustion reactions, lowering emissions of nitrogen oxides.

“Algae can also facilitate the breakdown of sludge residues and contribute to more stable combustion reactions, lowering emissions of harmful pollutants such as nitrogen oxides.”

May combine two claims.

Torrefaction palletization, involving mild thermal treatment (200-300°C) in an oxygen-limited environment, removes excess moisture and volatile compounds, yielding pellets with superior energy density, structural integrity, and durability.

“One particularly effective method is torrefaction palletization, which involves mild thermal treatment (200-300 • C) in an oxygen-limited environment.This process removes excess moisture and volatile compounds, yielding pellets with superior energy density, structural integrity, and durability [123].”

• cites [123] Jiang, 2023, Coupling Effects of Heating Pelleting and Torrefaction on Black Pellets Production from Microalga Nannochloropsis Oceanica Residues, Fuel sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Algal-derived chars provide additional benefits including soil amendment and energy recovery.

“Beyond water remediation, algal-derived chars provide additional benefits, including soil amendment and energy recovery, reinforcing their potential as a versatile tool in environmental engineering.”

May combine two claims.

Emerging techniques like supercritical fluid extraction offer a greener and more selective approach but may require specialized equipment and higher operational costs.

“Emerging techniques like supercritical fluid extraction, using carbon dioxide or other solvents under high pressure and temperature, offer a greener and more selective approach but may require specialized equipment and higher operational costs [112].”

• cites [112] Ezhumalai, 2024, A Holistic Approach to Circular Bioeconomy Through the Sustainable Utilization of Microalgal Biomass for Biofuel and Other Value-Added Products, Microb. Ecol. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

These microalgae can accumulate triacylglycerols, which can be transesterified to produce biodiesel.

“These microalgae can accumulate triacylglycerols, which can be transesterified to produce biodiesel.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Scalability remains a significant hurdle in translating laboratory success to large-scale industrial applications of algal biofuels.

“Scalability remains a significant hurdle in translating laboratory success to large-scale industrial applications.”

May combine two claims.

Algae-based solid biomass pellets are compatible with coal-fired boilers, making them a viable alternative to traditional fossil fuels while contributing to carbon recycling.

“Their compatibility with coal-fired boilers makes them a viable alternative to traditional fossil fuels while also contributing to carbon recycling [121].”

• cites [121] Yang, J., Zhao, T., Cui, X., Peng, M., Wang, X., Mao, H., and Cui, M. (2022). New Insights into the Carbon Neutrality of Microalgae from Culture to Utilization: A Critical Review on the Algae-Based Solid Biofuels. Biomass Bioenergy, 166. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Co-combusting algae-based fuels with coal, sludge, or oil shale reduces ignition temperatures, accelerates burnout rates, and enhances overall combustion performance.

“Beyond standalone pellets, algae-based fuels have been tested in dual-fuel applications, where they are co-combusted with coal, sludge, or oil shale [126-129].These combinations offer multiple advantages, such as reducing ignition temperatures, accelerating burnout rates, and enhancing overall combustion performance.”

• cites [126] Kastanaki, 2006, A Comparative Reactivity and Kinetic Study on the Combustion of Coal-Biomass Char Blends, Fuel sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [127] Gong, 2018, Study on Pyrolysis of Oil Sludge with Microalgae Residue Additive, Can. J. Chem. Eng. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [128] Wu, 2022, Oxy-Fuel Co-Combustion Dynamics of Phytoremediation Biomass and Textile Dyeing Sludge: Gas-to-Ash Pollution Abatement, Sci. Total Environ. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [129] Chen, 2017, Emissions Characteristics of NOx and SO2 in the Combustion of Microalgae Biomass Using a Tube Furnace, J. Energy Inst. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

By fostering complementary nutrient utilization among species, mixed-culture systems enhance biomass productivity and lower operational costs, making large-scale cultivation more economically viable.

“By fostering complementary nutrient utilization among species, these systems not only enhance biomass productivity but also lower operational costs, making large-scale cultivation more economically viable.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Algae-derived materials have shown potential in photocatalytic and electrocatalytic applications, offering sustainable alternatives for various industrial processes.

“Additionally, algae-derived materials have shown potential in photocatalytic and electrocatalytic applications, offering sustainable alternatives for various industrial processes.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

A key research gap lies in the long-term stability and combustion behavior of algae-blended fuels in real-world industrial applications.

“One key research gap lies in the long-term stability and combustion behavior of algae-blended fuels in real-world industrial applications.”

May combine two claims.

Blending algae with other biomass materials such as wood waste, agricultural residues, and rice husks improves combustion efficiency, energy density, and durability of pellets.

“To address cost challenges and enhance fuel performance, researchers have explored blending algae with other biomass materials, such as wood waste, agricultural residues, and rice husks.Even in small proportions, algae contribute to improved combustion efficiency, higher energy density, and enhanced durability of the pellets.”

May combine two claims.

When algae-based pellets are burned, they primarily release CO2 and ash, both of which can be reintegrated into algal cultivation systems.

“When burned, they primarily release CO 2 and ash-both of which can be reintegrated into algal cultivation systems.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Algal-based biofuels and carbon materials have high photosynthetic efficiency, rapid growth rates, and diverse biochemical composition, offering key advantages over conventional energy crops.

“Their high photosynthetic efficiency, rapid growth rates, and diverse biochemical composition offer key advantages over conventional energy crops.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

HTC is an efficient thermochemical process for converting wet biomass into hydrochars, which have diverse applications in energy storage, adsorption, and soil conditioning.

“HTC has also gained attention as an efficient thermochemical process for converting wet biomass into hydrochars, which have diverse applications in energy storage, adsorption, and soil conditioning.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Optimizing nutrient availability and CO2 transfer rates for consistent biomass productivity in wastewater and flue gas integration requires further investigation.

“Additionally, while wastewater and flue gas integration offer promising cost reductions, optimizing nutrient availability and CO 2 transfer rates for consistent biomass productivity requires further investigation.”

May combine two claims.

Microalgal strains can thrive in wastewater conditions, effectively removing excess nutrients while simultaneously increasing biomass production.

“Studies have shown that microalgal strains can thrive in wastewater conditions, effectively removing excess nutrients while simultaneously increasing biomass production [119].”

• cites [119] Sathinathan, 2023, Photobioreactor Design and Parameters Essential for Algal Cultivation Using Industrial Wastewater: A Review, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Understanding key process parameters-temperature, pressure, and residence time-has allowed better control over hydrochar properties, optimizing them for specific environmental applications.

“Understanding key process parameters-such as temperature, pressure, and residence time-has allowed better control over hydrochar properties, optimizing them for specific environmental applications.”

May combine two claims.

Algal biomass serves as a feedstock for solid, liquid (biodiesel and bioethanol), and gaseous (biohydrogen, biogas, and syngas) biofuels, with technological innovations continuously increasing fuel yields.

“This biomass serves as a feedstock for various biofuels-solid, liquid (biodiesel and bioethanol), and gaseous (biohydrogen, biogas, and syngas)-with technological innovations continuously increasing fuel yields.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Economic feasibility remains a major barrier to widespread adoption of algae-based biofuels.

“Despite these advancements, economic feasibility remains a major barrier to widespread adoption.”

May combine two claims.

Algae-based solid biomass pellets have high energy density and efficient combustion with minimal carbon emissions.

“Algae-based solid biomass pellets have emerged as a promising renewable fuel source, offering high energy density and efficient combustion with minimal carbon emissions.”

• cites [121] Yang, J., Zhao, T., Cui, X., Peng, M., Wang, X., Mao, H., and Cui, M. (2022). New Insights into the Carbon Neutrality of Microalgae from Culture to Utilization: A Critical Review on the Algae-Based Solid Biofuels. Biomass Bioenergy, 166. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Algae's fine particle size fills voids in biomass mixtures, increasing pellet density, while lipid content improves structural cohesion, reducing fragmentation during burning.

“Their fine particle size allows them to fill voids in biomass mixtures, increasing pellet density, while their lipid content improves structural cohesion, reducing fragmentation during burning.”

May combine two claims.

Certain thermotolerant microalgal strains have been successfully cultivated using exhaust gases from industrial burners, demonstrating feasibility of large-scale integration with existing infrastructure.

“Certain thermotolerant microalgal strains have been successfully cultivated using exhaust gases from industrial burners, demonstrating the feasibility of large-scale integration with existing infrastructure.”

• cites [120] Hekmatmehr, 2024, Carbon Capture Technologies: A Review on Technology Readiness Level, Fuel sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Leveraging natural density differences between algal strains allows selective enrichment of lipid-rich or carbohydrate-rich species, simplifying biomass harvesting and improving efficiency of biofuel and bioproduct generation.

“One promising method for optimizing mixed-culture systems involves leveraging natural density differences between algal strains.This allows for the selective enrichment of lipid-rich or carbohydrate-rich species, simplifying biomass harvesting and improving the efficiency of biofuel and bioproduct generation.”

• cites [118] Thomas, 2019, Algal Diversity and Traits Predict Biomass Yield and Grazing Resistance in Wastewater Cultivation, J. Appl. Phycol. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Nanomaterials and hybrid catalysts have shown promise for improved performance and longevity compared to traditional catalysts in carbon capture.

“Nanomaterials and hybrid catalysts have shown promise in this regard, offering improved performance and longevity compared to traditional catalysts.”