The DOI matches its Crossref record; 225 of the 225 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 203 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.
Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review
Open accessAbstract
In everyday decision-making, individuals make trade-offs between short-term and long-term benefits or costs. Depending on many factors, individuals may choose to wait for larger delayed reward, yet in other situations they may prefer the smaller, immediate reward. In addition to within-subject variation in the short-term versus long-term reward trade-off, there are also interindividual differences in delay discounting (DD), which have been shown to be quite stable. The extent to which individuals discount the value of delayed rewards turns out to be associated with important health and disorder-related outcomes: the more discounting, the more unhealthy or problematic choices. This has led to the hypothesis that DD can be conceptualized as trans-disease process. The current systematic review presents an overview of behavioral trainings and manipulations that have been developed to reduce DD in human participants aged 12 years or older. Manipulation studies mostly contain one session and measure DD directly after the manipulation. Training studies add a multiple session training component that is not per se related to DD, in between two DD task measurements. Ninety-eight studies (151 experiments) were identified that tested behavioral trainings and manipulations to decrease DD. Overall, results indicated that DD can be decreased, showing that DD is profoundly context dependent and changeable. Most promising avenues to pursue in future research seem to be acceptance-based/mindfulness-based trainings, and even more so manipulations involving a future orientation. Limitations and recommendations are discussed to identify the mechanistic processes that allow for changes in discount rate and behavior accordingly.
Overview
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
This systematic review of 98 studies (151 experiments) found that delay discounting (DD) can be reduced by behavioral trainings and manipulations, with manipulations showing much stronger success rates than trainings. The most promising avenues were acceptance-based/mindfulness-based trainings and, especially, future-oriented manipulations such as episodic future thinking and connectivity to future self.
Key findings
- Across the review, 119 of 98? Wait, text says “majority of published studies (n = 119; 79%) were able to reduce DD,” but only 98 studies were included; this appears to refer to experiments or is inconsistent in the paper. More clearly: 114 of 132 manipulation experiments (86%) reduced DD, whereas only 5 of 19 training experiments (26%) did so.
- The most effective manipulation categories were future-oriented: episodic future thinking reduced DD in 20 of 24 experiments (83%), and connectivity to future self reduced DD in 10 of 11 experiments (91%).
- Acceptance-based/mindfulness-based trainings were the most promising training category: four studies, two found significant DD decreases and two found mixed results (food DD decreased, money DD did not).
- Among experiments with secondary behavioral outcomes, all 7 training experiments with such outcomes found expected positive behavioral effects; EFT studies also reported reductions in smoking, caloric intake, and hypothetical alcohol purchase.
Methods
- Systematic review following PRISMA; searches in PubMed, PsychInfo, and Web of Science yielded 8,969 hits, 1,520 duplicates removed, 7,449 unique references, plus 8 from reference lists; 178 full texts screened, yielding 98 included studies.
- Inclusion criteria: human participants aged 12+; monetary DD outcome; behavioral training or manipulation aimed at decreasing DD; self-directed choices; sample size >10; published 1990–April 2017 in English peer-reviewed journals.
- Studies were categorized as trainings (19 studies, 19 experiments) or manipulations (79 studies, 132 experiments); manipulations were grouped into future, social factors, emotion, and framing categories. No meta-analysis or effect-size computation was performed.
Limitations
- Stated: wide variability in trainings/manipulations complicates comparison; publication bias could not be formally checked; most included studies did not report effect sizes or statistics allowing effect-size calculation.
- Stated: many studies lacked proper control conditions, did not directly compare experimental and control conditions, were poorly powered, or used different DD assessment methods; only two experiments included participants younger than 18, and many relied on healthy college student samples.
- Evident from the text: the categorization of manipulations into future, social, emotion, and framing is described by the authors as “purely subjective”; demand characteristics may inflate effects, especially for EFT and future-self manipulations; publication bias is likely more prevalent in manipulation studies than training studies.
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Claims the paper makes
0 of 203 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Seven out of the 19 studies (37%) also reported effects of their training on actual behavior such as smoking or cocaine abstinence, in addition to results on DD.”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Results > Characteristics of included studies
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Regarding the studies evaluating the effects of manipulations on DD, 86% (n = 114) found the expected reductions in DD”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Results > General results
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Ninety-eight studies (151 experiments) were identified that tested behavioral trainings and manipulations to decrease DD.”
- Also stated in: § Search results · plain
“Next, all 178 full-text studies were screened using the same inclusion criteria, and this resulted in a final number of 98 studies relevant for the review.”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Abstract
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In the paper
“The majority (n = 14; 74%) of these studies included a clinical population”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Results > Characteristics of included studies
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedn = 14Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“There are far more manipulation experiments available in the literature (n = 132; 87%), compared to trainings (n = 19; 13%).”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Results > Characteristics of included studies
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedn = 132Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“13% (n = 17) found null results or unexpected increases in DD”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Results > General results
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedn = 17Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“whereas 58% (n = 11) found null results or unexpected increases in DD.”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Results > General results
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Of the experiments, 5% (n = 6) reported effects of the manipulations on actual behavior, such as caloric intake, in addition to the effect on DD.”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Results > Characteristics of included studies
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Overall, results indicated that DD can be decreased, showing that DD is profoundly context dependent and changeable.”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“and 1% (n = 1) found mixed results (i.e., only effects in healthy control group, not in amnestic patients).”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Results > General results
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- It may state two separate claims as one. 94
- Probably not a substantial claim. 38
- The quote only partly states this claim. 3
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“these studies found the expected reductions in DD on a substance-related DD task, but not on a monetary DD task.”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Results > General results
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“14 experiments (11) included clinical populations”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Results > Characteristics of included studies
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These clinical populations included smokers, individuals with Internet gaming disorder, obese individuals, alcohol-dependent or substance-dependent individuals, and ADHD or amnestic patients.”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Results > Characteristics of included studies
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The selected studies cover a wide variety of behavioral trainings and manipulations that change DD in adolescents and adults.”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Method > Search results
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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In the paper
“A small number of experiments used a real DD task (n = 2; 1%), a potentially real FITB task (n = 1; 1%) or combined two methods within one experiment (n = 3; 2%).”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Results > Characteristics of included studies
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedn = 2Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The remaining 26% (n = 5) of studies tested their training in healthy controls.”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Results > Characteristics of included studies
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedn = 5Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Table 1 covers all studies applying a training, with a total of 19 studies (each covering one experiment; thus 19 experiments) published between 2008 and 2017.”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Results > Characteristics of included studies
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Almost all experiments included adults; only two experiments (Fassbender et al., 2014, Study 5; Radu, Yi, Bickel, Gross, & McClure, 2011, Study 2) also included participants younger than 18.”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Results > Characteristics of included studies
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedn = 2Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“One experiment combined a real DD and a hypothetical DD task, one experiment combined a potentially real DD task with a hypothetical DD task, and another experiment combined a hypothetical DD task with a hypothetical FITB task.”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Results > Characteristics of included studies
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“more than a third of all manipulation experiments (n = 52; 39%) has tested its manipulation in healthy control college student samples with a higher percentage of female than male participants (>60%).”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Results > Characteristics of included studies
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedn = 52Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“most experiments employed either a hypothetical DD task (n = 77; 51%), a potentially real DD task (n = 46; 30%) or a hypothetical FITB task (n = 22; 15%).”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Results > Characteristics of included studies
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedn = 77Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Most experiments (n = 118; 89%) included healthy controls as their target population”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Results > Characteristics of included studies
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedn = 118Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A total of 132 experiments were conducted within these 79 studies.”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Results > Characteristics of included studies
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The quote only partly states this claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the training experiments, the percentage of healthy control college student samples with more female than male participants was much lower (n = 4; 21%).”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Results > Characteristics of included studies
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedn = 4Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“The authors found that discounting rates increased and cocaine abstinence rates decreased in the control condition and both discounting rates and cocaine abstinence remained stable in the ATM condition.”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Results > Trainings
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Black and Rosen (2011)
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: More knowledge of money management increases the salience of future rewards and makes those more concrete.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“One study (16.5%) found expected reductions in DD, one found mixed results on two different DD tasks (16.5%), and four found null results or unexpected increases in DD (67%).”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Results > Trainings
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Neither exercise nor CM decreased DD rates.”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Results > Trainings
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Kurti and Dallery (2014)
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Both studies did not find effects on marijuana (Peters et al., 2013) and opioid use (Landes et al., 2012).”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Results > Trainings
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Landes et al. (2012)
- Not checked yetcites Peters et al. (2013)
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In the paper
“They found that monetary as well as cigarette DD was decreased in the CM condition, whereas no changes were found in the control condition.”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Results > Trainings
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Yi et al. (2008)
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Four studies included an acceptance-based or mindfulness-based approach, two of which found significant decreases in DD and two of which found mixed results.”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Results > Trainings
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Yao et al. (2017) compared a healthy control sample with a sample of individuals with Internet gaming disorder (IGD) and found that discounting rates and IGD symptoms decreased in the IGD group after an acceptance-based training.”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Results > Trainings
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Yao et al. (2017)
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“They found attenuated DD in the CM condition on the task comparing monetary and cigarette rewards, but no effects on the monetary DD task.”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Results > Trainings
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Yoon et al. (2009)
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Peters et al. (2013) compared a CBT-only condition with three conditions including CM in marijuana-dependent individuals and found increases in DD in the CBT-only group, whereas DD rates remained stable in the CM conditions.”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Results > Trainings
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Peters et al. (2013)
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“DD decreased in the financial education condition at the end of the semester, whereas there was no change found in DD rates in the abnormal psychology condition.”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Results > Trainings
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites DeHart et al. (2016)
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: More knowledge of money management increases the salience of future rewards and makes those more concrete.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Two studies employed a WM training to reduce DD, one with results in the expected direction on DD whereas the other study did not find any effects.”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Results > Trainings
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“One study found null results for DD, but the expected results for cocaine abstinence; the other study found the expected reductions in DD.”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Results > Trainings
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: More knowledge of money management increases the salience of future rewards and makes those more concrete.
In the paper
“but they demonstrated an increase in smoking abstinence in the CM condition at posttest though not at follow-up.”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Results > Trainings
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Weidberg et al. (2015)
Strength:boosted· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“However, the conditions including CM found increased latencies to smoke and decreased total puffs in smokers compared with conditions without CM.”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Results > Trainings
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Kurti and Dallery (2014)
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“One experiment (9%) showed a trend toward a decrease in DD (p = .056), but did not convincingly show effects of the connection to future (self) manipulation on DD.”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Results > Manipulations
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Hershfield et al. (2011)
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Yet, the study by Parthasarathi and colleagues (Parthasarathi, McConnell, Luery, & Kable, 2017) employed a visualization training and did not find the expected effects on DD.”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Results > Trainings
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Parthasarathi, McConnell, Luery, & Kable, 2017
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“in the study by Daniel et al. (2013b) they found that the participants in the EFT condition showed lower DD rates and lower caloric intake, compared with the control condition.”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Results > Manipulations
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Daniel et al. (2013b)
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Three experiments (13%) did not find that EFT reduced DD and one experiment (4%) found mixed results (i.e., DD decreased in healthy control sample after EFT, but not in the amnestic patients’ sample).”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Results > Manipulations
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In Experiment 1 of the study by Palombo and colleagues (Palombo, Keane, & Verfaellie, 2016), amnestic and healthy control subjects performed either a standard DD task (control condition) or a DD task with EFT manipulation. EFT reduced DD in healthy control subjects, but not in amnestic subjects.”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Results > Manipulations
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Palombo, Keane, & Verfaellie, 2016
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In contrast, Rass et al. (2015) applied almost the same WM training and did not find a difference in DD rates between the WM and control condition.”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Results > Trainings
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Rass et al. (2015)
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Each study included different substance-addicted population in different addiction stages (stimulant-dependent vs. methadone-maintenance patients)”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Results > Trainings
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Bickel et al. (2011b)
- Not checked yetcites Rass et al. (2015)
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Five studies (Chiou & Wu, 2016; Daniel et al., 2013b; Dassen et al., 2016; Snider, LaConte, & Bickel, 2015; Stein et al., 2016) also tested for effects on behavior and found reductions in smoking, caloric intake, and hypothetical alcohol purchase.”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Results > Manipulations
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Chiou & Wu, 2016
- Not checked yetcites Daniel et al., 2013b
- Not checked yetcites Dassen et al., 2016
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Furthermore, the study by Bickel et al. (2011b) included 74% males, whereas the study by Rass et al. (2015) included 46% males.”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Results > Trainings
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Bickel et al. (2011b)
- Not checked yetcites Rass et al. (2015)
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Eleven experiments tested manipulations to heighten connectivity to the future (self) and 10 (91%) were effective in reducing DD rates.”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Results > Manipulations
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Five experiments tested effects of the presence of a social context on DD; 80% (n = 4) found positive effects on DD, whereas 20% (n = 1) did not find main effects of condition on DD.”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Results > Manipulations
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In contrast, Augustine and Larsen (2011) and Hirsh, Guindon, Morisano, and Peterson (2010) did not find a reduction in DD rates while using the same sort of affect induction.”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Results > Manipulations
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Augustine and Larsen (2011)
- Not checked yetcites Hirsh, Guindon, Morisano, and Peterson (2010)
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“They found that DD was attenuated in the neutral condition and even more decreased in the positive condition, compared with the negative condition.”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Results > Manipulations
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Guan, Cheng, Fan, and Li (2015)
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Twenty-six experiments all used very different forms of inducing affect or emotional priming with the aim to decrease DD, and 22 (85%) found a decrease in DD rates.”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Results > Manipulations
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Four experiments have employed a bundling manipulation, of which three (75%) found positive results on DD and one (25%) did not.”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Results > Manipulations
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Twenty-one experiments attempted to decrease DD by time framing manipulations, 16 (76%) found the expected effects on DD, and five (24%) did not find effects on DD.”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Results > Manipulations
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Second, the majority of trainings tried to find effects over longer time periods, while the effects of most manipulations were tested just after the manipulation.”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Discussion > Overall effectiveness of trainings and manipulations
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Attrition in the training studies reported in this systematic review was on average 15% (range: 0%–50%), with higher dropout rates in more severely affected populations.”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Discussion > Overall effectiveness of trainings and manipulations
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Third, trainings were mostly conducted in clinical populations and the manipulations (with a few exceptions) in healthy populations.”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Discussion > Overall effectiveness of trainings and manipulations
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the EFT studies include healthy (62%) as well as different clinical samples (38%)”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Discussion > Implications: Most promising strategies to reduce DD
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although the effects regarding CM on DD rates in this systematic review are mixed (only 33.3% found the expected decreases in DD)”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Discussion > Implications: Most promising strategies to reduce DD
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“especially “future episodic thinking” and “connectivity to future (self)” manipulations with 83% and 91% effectiveness rates, respectively.”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Discussion > Implications: Most promising strategies to reduce DD
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“find promising effects on smoking behavior (40%), caloric intake (40%) and hypothetical alcohol purchase (20%).”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Discussion > Implications: Most promising strategies to reduce DD
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, the way these two amounts are described seem to matter according to 26 experiments. Of these 26 experiments, 25 (96%) found positive results of the reframing of reward manipulation on DD.”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Results > Manipulations
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Differences between studies are high: Some studies did not include a proper control condition, some did not directly compare the experimental and control condition, and others included poorly powered designs or did not report effect sizes or statistics to calculate effect sizes.”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Discussion > Limitations and recommendations
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“in the current systematic review, only two experiments included a sample younger than 18 years of age, with all other studies heavily relying on healthy control college student samples.”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Discussion > Limitations and recommendations
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Furthermore, Rung and Madden (2018b) included a review and analysis of animal studies, studies with child populations, and studies before 1990, but did not report on possible effects of DD trainings or manipulations on behavior.”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Glossary of acronyms in text and tables
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Rung and Madden, 2018b
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Overall, results indicated that DD can be decreased, showing that DD is profoundly context dependent and changeable.”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Frequently, unhealthy or problematic behaviors have a delayed effect on health—for example, smoking a cigarette right now has detrimental effects on one’s health in the long run.”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Glossary of acronyms in text and tables
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The extent to which individuals discount the value of delayed rewards turns out to be associated with important health and disorder-related outcomes: the more discounting, the more unhealthy or problematic choices.”
- Also stated in: § Glossary of acronyms in text and tables · plain
“The extent to which individuals discount the value of delayed rewards turns out to be associated with important health and disorder-related outcomes, and there is growing interest in trainings and manipulations that decrease heightened DD.”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Glossary of acronyms in text and tables · plain
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“At the same time, there is a growing number of studies that suggest that intraindividual differences in DD rate are substantial as well: Within individuals, DD rate changes as a function of contextual/situational factors (Bickel, 2015; Gray & MacKillop, 2015; Odum, 2011).”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Glossary of acronyms in text and tables
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Bickel, 2015
- Not checked yetcites Gray & MacKillop, 2015
- Not checked yetcites Odum, 2011 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“While attention to the topic of reducing DD is growing, little is understood about effective ways to alter heightened discount rates.”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Glossary of acronyms in text and tables
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although the literature provides a small number of important narrative reviews discussing the promise of DD trainings and manipulations (e.g., Bickel et al., 2015; Gray & MacKillop, 2015; Koffarnus et al., 2013; Lempert & Phelps, 2016), a systematic review was not performed at the time of our search.”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Glossary of acronyms in text and tables
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Specifically, increased DD rates are characteristic of maladaptive and unhealthy behaviors including alcohol dependence”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Glossary of acronyms in text and tables
What the sources say
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Authors H.S. and U..G independently determined whether the inclusion criteria were met by reading the titles and abstracts.”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Method > Search results
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Most promising avenues to pursue in future research seem to be acceptance-based/mindfulness-based trainings, and even more so manipulations involving a future orientation.”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Abstract
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Contingency management (CM) is a well-researched and effective behavioral training to increase drug abstinence across substance-dependent disorders (Stanger et al., 2013).”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Results > Trainings
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Stanger et al., 2013 source
Strength:boosted· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“could be an indication that the effects of CM are substance specific and do not transfer to monetary DD tasks.”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Results > Trainings
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Yet no results on CO levels were provided for the control condition, which did not allow a direct comparison between both conditions.”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Results > Trainings
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Yi et al. (2008)
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“showing that DD is profoundly context dependent and changeable.”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Results > General results
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“These two factors make it difficult to fully interpret the findings”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Results > Trainings
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Yao et al. (2017)
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Increasing the ability to vividly imagine future events by visualization training could then theoretically lead to a decrease in discounting rates.”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Results > Trainings
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In conclusion, both abstract and concrete mindsets, including mentally imagining a smaller spatial distance, seem to be effective in decreasing DD rates.”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Results > Manipulations
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Some theoretical models of discounting hypothesize that delayed outcomes are less concrete or less vivid than immediate outcomes, and therefore individuals tend to prefer immediate outcomes over delayed ones (Rick & Loewenstein, 2008; Trope & Liberman, 2003).”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Results > Trainings
What the sources say
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Different theoretical frameworks and methods are used, but in the end the future event is made available and more concrete to the participant.”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Results > Manipulations
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Construal level theory (CLT) proposes that temporal distance alters people’s responses to future events by systematically changing the way people mentally represent those events (Trope & Liberman, 2003).”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Results > Manipulations
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Trope & Liberman, 2003 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“This hypothesis is grounded in the argument that if a bias to the present is driven by contextual and concrete representations, then endorsing an abstract mindset should decrease the extent of these representations and thus attenuate delay discounting (Malkoc et al., 2010).”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Results > Manipulations
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Malkoc et al., 2010
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Another, evolutionary, explanation states that natural environments indicate resource abundance, and therefore individuals choose more often for larger but future outcomes (van der Wal et al., 2013).”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Results > Manipulations
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites van der Wal et al., 2013
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Natural environments are serene, thereby increasing attentional capacity and/or reducing general arousal, and by viewing them perception of time is lengthened (Berry et al., 2014; Berry et al., 2015).”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Results > Manipulations
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Berry et al., 2014
- Not checked yetcites Berry et al., 2015
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The experiment by Lempert, Johnson, and Phelps (2016) employed the same manipulation but did not replicate the findings of the previous studies.”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Results > Manipulations
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Lempert, Johnson, and Phelps (2016)
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In both studies, discounting rates decreased when participants were allocated to the suggested condition”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Results > Manipulations
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Hofmeyr, Ainsli, Charlton, and Ross (2011)
- Not checked yetcites Kirby and Guastello (2001)
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Based on the four studies, bundling seems to decrease DD rates, but may partly depend on reward magnitude.”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Results > Manipulations
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The presence of a social context could influence decision-making, based on the rationale that when an individual makes a choice on behalf of their group (i.e., including themselves), they prefer alternatives geared towards the group’s long-term benefit (Bickel, Jarmolowicz, Mueller, Franck, et al., 2012a).”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Results > Manipulations
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Bickel, Jarmolowicz, Mueller, Franck, et al., 2012a
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These inconsistent findings leave the exact interaction between emotion and DD to be uncovered.”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Results > Manipulations
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, both positive and negative affect/emotional priming can result in decreases in DD”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Results > Manipulations
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“For example, exposure to natural environments decreases stress, increases happiness, improves mood, and restores attention (Berto, 2005; Bowler, Buyung-Ali, Knight, & Pullin, 2010; White, Alcock, Wheeler, & Depledge, 2013).”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Results > Manipulations
What the sources say
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Of the other four experiments that did not find effects”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Results > Manipulations
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Zauberman, Kim, Malkoc, & Bettman, 2009
- Not checked yetcites Ebert and Prelec (2007)
- Not checked yetcites Rabinovich, Morton, & Postmes, 2010
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Since discount rates are susceptible to order presentation (Robles & Vargas, 2008), this may explain the failure to replicate the date/delay effect.”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Results > Manipulations
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Robles & Vargas, 2008 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesThe quote only partly states this claim.
In the paper
“through acceptance-based/mindfulness-based trainings, individuals with addictive problems learn to accept negative feelings associated with moments of cravings and therefore get through these moments and stay abstinent”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Discussion > Implications: Most promising strategies to reduce DD
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Ashe et al., 2015 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the effects of the manipulations could very well be short-lived and context-specific effects that quickly disappear over time.”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Discussion > Implications: Most promising strategies to reduce DD
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“more impulsive people might find waiting in the moment particularly aversive, and their prime motivation is to escape those negative feelings by choosing immediate rewards”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Discussion > Implications: Most promising strategies to reduce DD
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Sonuga-Barke, 2005 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“We know that training effects tend to decay over time, with effect sizes generally being the largest at posttest and decreasing at follow-up”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Discussion > Overall effectiveness of trainings and manipulations
What the sources say
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Most intervention theories related to elevated DD rates attempt to change individuals’ heightened emphasis on immediate rewards toward a more future-oriented focus, whereas acceptance-based/mindfulness-based trainings concentrate on experiencing and accepting the aversiveness of the present moment”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Discussion > Implications: Most promising strategies to reduce DD
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Ashe, Newman, & Wilson, 2015 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Following intention-to-treat principles, all participants should be included in analyses, regardless of whether they actually received treatment, and thus dropouts are included in the analyses as nonabstainers”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Discussion > Overall effectiveness of trainings and manipulations
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Brorson et al., 2013 source
- Not checked yetcites Montori and Guyatt, 2001
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“this alternative focus on improving DD by decreasing the aversiveness of the present moment is strengthened with significant effects on behavior, such as food behaviors”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Discussion > Implications: Most promising strategies to reduce DD
What the sources say
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesThe quote only partly states this claim.
In the paper
“Attrition in clinical studies is common and is frequently seen in studies with substance-abuse samples”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Discussion > Overall effectiveness of trainings and manipulations
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Brorson, Arnevik, Rand-Hendriksen, & Duckert, 2013 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“although there may be between-subject stability to DD, it is also profoundly context dependent within individuals”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Discussion > Overall effectiveness of trainings and manipulations
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, it remains unclear whether changes in behavior are mediated by changes in DD and, if so, whether these effects are substance specific”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Discussion > Implications: Most promising strategies to reduce DD
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“video games are a ubiquitous part of our current society”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Discussion > Implications: Most promising strategies to reduce DD
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Granic, Lobel, & Engels, 2014 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Besides effects on EFT, demand characteristics could likely play a role in “connectivity to future (self)” manipulations and “construal level thinking manipulations (concretization).””
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Discussion > Implications: Most promising strategies to reduce DD
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“not only has heightened DD been correlated with health and disorder-related outcomes, but lower-than-average discount rates have also been associated with pathology (e.g., anorexia; Decker, Figner, & Steinglass, 2015).”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Discussion > Limitations and recommendations
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Decker, Figner, & Steinglass, 2015 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“there are some overarching mechanisms of change that could explain results over different trainings and manipulations, content wise.”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Discussion > Overarching mechanisms of change
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For some individuals, for whom delay aversion is the main reason for steep DD, acceptance-based/mindfulness-based trainings may be more appropriate, whereas for others, who are driven by reward immediacy in steep DD, the future manipulations may be more effective.”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Discussion > Overarching mechanisms of change
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“From both a human impact and economic perspective, there is a strong rationale to focus more on youth”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Discussion > Limitations and recommendations
What the sources say
Strength:boosted· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Sonuga-Barke and colleagues (Sonuga-Barke, 2005; Sonuga-Barke, Taylor, Sembi, & Smith, 1992) have hypothesized that choosing for immediate rewards, and thus steep discounting, is the result of a high aversion to delay.”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Discussion > Overarching mechanisms of change
What the sources say
Tests✗ Asserted: fails✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Changing the way reward magnitudes are presented (reframing of reward manipulations; decimal effects) or drawing the attention to the “costs” of the immediate reward (reframing of reward manipulations; explicit-zero effects; CM trainings; money-management-based trainings) are ways to change discount rates.”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Discussion > Overarching mechanisms of change
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“it has been shown that individuals with ADHD experience relatively strong negative emotions during waiting times, resulting in a preference to escape delay”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Discussion > Overarching mechanisms of change
What the sources say
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“smoking during adolescence has a direct negative effect on youth’s health and is a significant predictor of nicotine dependence in adulthood”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Discussion > Limitations and recommendations
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Mermelstein, 2003 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“individuals showing steeper discounting also show a more present orientation and a shorter future time perspective, which is associated with a range of problematic behaviors”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Discussion > Overarching mechanisms of change
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Teuscher & Mitchell, 2011 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Most promising avenues to pursue in future research seem to be acceptance-based/mindfulness-based trainings, and even more so future-oriented manipulations.”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Discussion > Conclusion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Overall, results showed that DD can be decreased and thus that DD is a changeable construct”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Discussion > Conclusion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“at this point we do not know whether this relation between DD rates and health behaviors is correlational or causal in nature; the mere fact that discounting is correlated with psychopathology does not necessarily mean that reducing discounting would reduce psychopathology.”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Discussion > Limitations and recommendations
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: High delay discounting rates are associated with unhealthy behaviors.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“affective and emotional states can change DD rates, but likely depend on the specific properties of the affective state”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Discussion > Overarching mechanisms of change
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“individuals with ADHD symptoms show a larger present orientation and a more negative view of the future than the controls”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Discussion > Overarching mechanisms of change
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Carelli & Wiberg, 2012 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“different methods were used to assess DD, and these methods vary systematically in their outcomes”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Discussion > Limitations and recommendations
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Scheres, de Water, et al., 2013a
- Not checked yetcites Weatherly, 2014 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Both thorough, longer lasting, and active trainings as well as more short lived on–off manipulations could be successful in changing DD rates and behavior, depending on the purpose of a certain intervention.”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Discussion > Overarching mechanisms of change
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Therefore, delaying interventions until adulthood is undesirable, and a focus on youth is imperative.”
§ Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review > Discussion > Limitations and recommendations
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
The authors state this as an assumption.
The division of manipulations into four main categories is subjective.
“Please note that this division is purely subjective, and some studies combine multiple manipulation categories.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
More knowledge of money management increases the salience of future rewards and makes those more concrete.
“based on the idea that more knowledge of money management increases the salience of future rewards and makes those more concrete.”
The paper relies on this without support.
A higher connectedness to the future self implies a greater willingness to defer benefits to the future self.
“based on the notion that a higher connectedness to the future (self) implies a greater willingness to defer benefits to the future self.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The more detailed information is available, the more a future event can be construed in a concrete way, corresponding to a low-level construal.
“The rationale behind this hypothesis is that the more detailed information is available, the more a future event can be construed in a concrete way, corresponding to a low-level construal.”
The paper relies on this without support.
High delay discounting rates are associated with unhealthy behaviors.
“Though high DD rates are associated with unhealthy behaviors”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“The most promising ways to lower discount rates are episodic future thinking and mindfulness-based training/acceptance-based training48,49.”
From Temporal discounting predicts procrastination in the real world (2024) · cites this paper as [49]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Bundling summary overstates the suggested condition's effect
MinorThe text says discounting decreased in the suggested condition in both cited studies. Table 2 reports no change for that condition in Hofmeyr et al.; only its forced condition decreased DD among smokers.
“In both studies, discounting rates decreased when participants were allocated to the suggested condition and even more in the forced condition.”
“Smokers:Main effect conditionC: Free condition ➔ DD –E1: Suggested condition ➔ DD –E2: Forced condition ➔ DD ↓”
Wrong Yi study cited for the group-choice manipulation
MinorThe social-context discussion attributes a group-choice manipulation to Yi et al. (2008), but Table 1 describes that study as a smoking/CM training. Table 2 attributes the choosing-for-a-group experiment to Yi et al. (2010).
“In comparison, Yi et al. (2008) employed the same manipulation, but did not find a positive effect of choosing for the group over choosing for the self.”
“| Yi et al. (2010) | | HC | 57 (26) | 33.09 | HYP DD | VIR, FDR | 1d−25y /1w−5y | WSNo main effect conditionC: Choosing for self ➔ DD –E: Choosing for group ➔ DD –”
Yi et al. comparison conflicts with the table's interaction result
MinorThe text says the CM and control conditions were not directly compared statistically for DD. Table 1 nevertheless reports a condition-by-time interaction for their DD results, which entails a comparison between conditions.
“However, the CM condition was not directly compared with the control condition in the statistical analyses.”
“BSInteraction effect condition and timeMoney:C: Smoke as normal ➔ DD −E: CM ➔ DD ↓Cigarettes:C: Smoke as normal ➔ DD −E: CM ➔ DD ↓”
Citations
Cites
Items 201–225 of 225
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Delay Discounting of Different Commodities II: Confirmatory Analyses
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Thinking about Death Reduces Delay Discounting
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Working Memory Training for Adolescents With Cannabis Use Disorders: A Randomized Controlled Trial
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Cited by
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Metadata
- Authors
- Scholten, H., Scheres, A., de Water, E., Graf, U., Granic, I., & Luijten, M.
- Affiliations
- Radboud University Nijmegen (NL)
- Corresponding author
- Scholten, Hanneke
- Venue
- Psychonomic Bulletin & Review
- Published
- 2019-07-03
- Volume
- 26
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 1803-1849
- ISSN
- 1069-9384 (ISSN-L)
- 1531-5320
- PMC
- PMC6863952
- OpenAlex
- W2954189525
- Semantic Scholar
- cd06ac92ad358d63a8dae4ccd0fff22241787e19
- Cited by
- 135
- References
- 225
- Citations by year
- 2026: 13 · 2025: 26 · 2024: 23 · 2023: 18 · 2022: 12 · 2021: 27 · 2020: 15 · 2019: 1
- FWCI
- 1.61
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Locations
- Psychonomic Bulletin & Review (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Radboud Repository (Radboud University) (submittedVersion)
- Radboud Repository (Radboud University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Funders
- Radboud University
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › General Decision Sciences › Decision-Making and Behavioral Economics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Psychological and Temporal Perspectives Research
- Keywords
- delay discounting, behavioral training, controlling behavior, delayed rewards, intertemporal choice, mindfulness training, future orientation, individual differences, context sensitivity
- MeSH terms
- Cognitive Remediation, Humans, Reward, Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, Mindfulness, Delay Discounting
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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