Nicotine dependence, major depression, and anxiety in young adults
Abstract
To determine whether nicotine dependence, classified by level of severity, was associated with other substance dependence, major depression, and anxiety disorders, we studied a random sample of 1007 young adults in the Detroit (Mich) area using the National Institute of Mental Health Diagnostic Interview Schedule, revised according to DSM-III-R. The systematic coverage of DSM-III-R criteria of nicotine dependence provides an unprecedented opportunity to separate persons with nicotine dependence from the larger class of persons with a history of smoking and to examine the prevalence of psychiatric disorders among persons with nicotine dependence and among nondependent smokers. The lifetime prevalence of nicotine dependence was 20%. Nicotine dependence was associated with alcohol, cannabis, and cocaine dependence. Controlling for the effects of other substance dependencies, persons with nicotine dependence had higher rates of major depression and anxiety disorders. The strength of these associations varied by level of severity of nicotine dependence. Nondependent smokers had higher rates of other substance dependencies, but not of major depression or anxiety disorders.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Depression symptoms are important determinants of smoking initiation, maintenance, and cessation, whereas nicotine dependence is associated with vulnerability for depression.
“Previous studies have shown that depression symptoms are important determinants of smoking initiation, maintenance, and cessation, whereas nicotine dependence is associated with vulnerability for depression (Breslau, Kilbey, & Andreski, 1991; Fergusson, Goodwin, & Horwood, 2003; Glassman et al., 1990; Hall, Muñoz, Reus, & Sees, 1993; Morrell & Cohen, 2006; Paperwalla, Levin, Weiner, & Saravay, 200”
From Nicotine addiction and psychiatric disorders (2015) · cites this paper as Breslau et al., 1991
Cites
Neurogenetic Adaptive Mechanisms in Alcoholism
Cloninger, C. R. (1987) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.2882604 · Cited by 2,203 · see citing works
Smoking, smoking cessation, and major depression
Glassman, A. H. (1990) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.1990.03450120058029 · Cited by 1,207 · see citing works
Helzer, J. E., & Pryzbeck, T. R. (1988) · Journal of Studies on Alcohol · doi:10.15288/jsa.1988.49.219 · Cited by 1,092 · see citing works
Alcohol dependence syndrome: Measurement and validation.
Skinner, H. A., & Allen, B. A. (1982) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037//0021-843x.91.3.199 · Cited by 1,061 · see citing works
Prevalence of smoking among psychiatric outpatients
(1986) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/ajp.143.8.993 · Cited by 1,058 · see citing works
Depression and the dynamics of smoking. A national perspective
Anda, R. F. (1990) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.264.12.1541 · Cited by 926 · see citing works
The relation between alcohol problems and the anxiety disorders
Kushner, M. G., Sher, K. J., & Beitman, B. D. (1990) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/ajp.147.6.685 · Cited by 723 · see citing works
Psychopathology in Hospitalized Alcoholics
Hesselbrock, M. N. (1985) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1985.01790340028004 · Cited by 712 · see citing works
Psychopathology as a Predictor of Treatment Outcome in Alcoholics
Rounsaville, B. J. (1987) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1987.01800180015002 · Cited by 664 · see citing works
Adult Sequelae of Adolescent Depressive Symptoms
Kandel, D. B. (1986) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1986.01800030073007 · Cited by 635 · see citing works
Heterogeneity of Psychiatric Diagnosis in Treated Opiate Addicts
Rounsaville, B. J. (1982) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1982.04290020027006 · Cited by 565 · see citing works
Heavy smokers, smoking cessation, and clonidine. Results of a double-blind, randomized trial
Glassman, A. H. (1988) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.259.19.2863 · Cited by 494 · see citing works
Trends in cigarette smoking in the United States. The changing influence of gender and race
Fiore, M. C. (1989) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.261.1.49 · Cited by 450 · see citing works
DiFranza, J. R., & Guerrera, M. P. (1990) · Journal of Studies on Alcohol · doi:10.15288/jsa.1990.51.130 · Cited by 419 · see citing works
Patterns of drug use from adolescence to young adulthood: II. Sequences of progression.
Yamaguchi, K., & Kandel, D. B. (1984) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.74.7.668 · Cited by 377 · see citing works
Abuse liability and pharmacodynamic characteristics of intravenous and inhaled nicotine.
Henningfield, J. E., Miyasato, K., & Jasinski, D. R. (1985) · Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics · doi:10.1016/s0022-3565(25)23319-5 · Cited by 281 · see citing works
Involvement of tobacco in alcoholism and illicit drug use
Henningfield, J. E., Clayton, R., & Pollin, W. (1990) · British Journal of Addiction · doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.1990.tb03084.x · Cited by 240 · see citing works
Development of Psychiatric Illness in Drug Abusers
McLellan, A. T., WOODY, G. E., & O’Brien, C. P. (1979) · New England Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1056/nejm197912133012403 · Cited by 219 · see citing works
Depression, alcohol use, and smoking over one year: A four-wave longitudinal causal model.
Aneshensel, C. S., & Huba, G. J. (1983) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037//0021-843x.92.2.134 · Cited by 215 · see citing works
Current smoking trends in the United States. The 1981-1983 behavioral risk factor surveys
Remington, P. (1985) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.253.20.2975 · Cited by 143 · see citing works
Heavy Smokers, Smoking Cessation, and Clonidine
Green, J. (1988) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.1988.03410110060016 · Cited by 133 · see citing works
Cigarette smoking among alcohol abusers: a continuing and neglected problem.
Lt, K., Lc, J., & Pope, M. A. (1986) · PubMed · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Smoking habit and psychometric scores: a community study.
Waal-Manning, H. J., & de Hamel, F. A. (1978) · PubMed · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Psychoneurotic profiles of smokers and non-smokers.
Haines, A., Imeson, J., & Meade, T. W. (1980) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.280.6229.1422 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Smoking and Other Tobacco Use: United States, 1987
Schoenborn, C. A., & Boyd, G. M. (1989) · PsycEXTRA Dataset · doi:10.1037/e609432007-001 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Smoking and depression: a community survey.
Frerichs, R. R., Aneshensel, C. S., Clark, V. A., & Yokopenic, P. A. (1981) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.71.6.637 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Utilization Patterns and Mortality of HMO Enrollees
McFarland, B. H., Freeborn, D. K., Mullooly, J. P., & Pope, C. R. (1986) · Medical Care · doi:10.1097/00005650-198603000-00002 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Henningfield, J. E., & Goldberg, S. R. (1988) · Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior · doi:10.1016/0091-3057(88)90448-0 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Freeborn, D. K., & Pope, C. (1982) · PubMed · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Heavy Smokers, Smoking Cessation, and Clonidine: Results of a Double-blind, Randomized Trial
Glassman, A. H. (1988) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.1988.03720190031026
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Sleep disturbance and psychiatric disorders: A longitudinal epidemiological study of young Adults
Breslau, N., Roth, T., Rosenthal, L., & Andreski, P. (1996) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/0006-3223(95)00188-3 · Cited by 1,831 · see citing works
Self-citationGallo, L. C., & Matthews, K. A. (2003) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.129.1.10 · Cited by 1,366 · see citing works
Grant, B. F., Hasin, D. S., Chou, S. P., Stinson, F. S., & Dawson, D. A. (2004) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.61.11.1107 · Cited by 1,262 · see citing works
Smoking and Major Depression: A Causal Analysis
Kendler, K. S. (1993) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1993.01820130038007 · Cited by 792 · see citing works
Johnson, E. O., Roth, T., & Breslau, N. (2006) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2006.07.008 · Cited by 804 · see citing works
Self-citationTobacco use and cessation in psychiatric disorders: National Institute of Mental Health report
Ziedonis, D., Hitsman, B., Beckham, J. C., Zvolensky, M., Adler, L. E., Audrain-McGovern, J., Breslau, N., Brown, R. A., George, T. P., Williams, J., et al. (2008) · Nicotine & Tobacco Research · doi:10.1080/14622200802443569 · Cited by 735 · see citing works
Self-citationCigarette smoking: implications for psychiatric illness
(1993) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/ajp.150.4.546 · Cited by 723 · see citing works
Drug use and the risk of major depressive disorder, alcohol dependence, and substance use disorders.
Brook, D. W., Brook, J. S., Zhang, C., Cohen, P., & Whiteman, M. (2002) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.59.11.1039 · Cited by 527 · see citing works
Association Between Cigarette Smoking and Anxiety Disorders During Adolescence and Early Adulthood
Johnson, J. G. (2000) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.284.18.2348 · Cited by 494 · see citing works
Nicotine Dependence and Major Depression: New Evidence From a Prospective Investigation
Breslau, N. (1993) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1993.01820130033006 · Cited by 443 · see citing works
Self-citationAnxiety, anxiety disorders, tobacco use, and nicotine: A critical review of interrelationships.
Morissette, S. B., Tull, M. T., Gulliver, S. B., Kamholz, B. W., & Zimering, R. T. (2007) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.133.2.245 · Cited by 380 · see citing works
Major depression and cigarette smoking: Results of a 21-year longitudinal study
FERGUSSON, D. M., GOODWIN, R. D., & HORWOOD, L. J. (2003) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291703008596 · Cited by 374 · see citing works
Smoking cessation and the course of major depression: A follow-up study
Glassman, A. H., Covey, L. S., Stetner, F., & Rivelli, S. (2001) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(00)05064-9 · Cited by 370 · see citing works
The Flinders sensitive line rats: a genetic animal model of depression
Overstreet, D. H. (1993) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/s0149-7634(05)80230-1 · Cited by 369 · see citing works
Anxiety and depression in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). A review
Mikkelsen, R. L., Middelboe, T., Pisinger, C., & Stage, K. B. (2004) · Nordic Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1080/08039480310000824 · Cited by 345 · see citing works
Use of benzodiazepines in anxiety disorders
Wood, A. J. J., Shader, R. I., & Greenblatt, D. J. (1993) · New England Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1056/nejm199305133281907 · Cited by 341 · see citing works
Predicting smoking cessation and major depression in nicotine-dependent smokers
(2000) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.90.7.1122 · Cited by 293 · see citing works
Self-citationEarly smoking initiation and nicotine dependence in a cohort of young adults
Breslau, N., Fenn, N., & Peterson, E. L. (1993) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/0376-8716(93)90054-t · Cited by 285 · see citing works
Psychiatric disorders and stages of smoking
Breslau, N., Novak, S. P., & Kessler, R. C. (2004) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/s0006-3223(03)00317-2 · Cited by 274 · see citing works
Self-citationTobacco smoking and depressed mood in late childhood and early adolescence.
Wu, L. T., & Anthony, J. C. (1999) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.89.12.1837 · Cited by 273 · see citing works
Klungsøyr, O., Nygård, J. F., Sørensen, T., & Sandanger, I. (2006) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/aje/kwj058 · Cited by 269 · see citing works
Moylan, S., Jacka, F. N., Pasco, J. A., & Berk, M. (2012) · BMC Medicine · doi:10.1186/1741-7015-10-123 · Cited by 242 · see citing works
Brown (2001) · doi:10.1016/s0306-4603(01)00241-6 · Cited by 228 · see citing works
Hatsukami, D. K., Stead, L. F., & Gupta, P. C. (2008) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(08)60871-5 · Cited by 227 · see citing works
Cigarette smoking predicts development of depressive symptoms among U.S. Adolescents
Choi, W. S., Patten, C. A., Christian Gillin, J., Kaplan, R. M., & Pierce, J. P. (1997) · Annals of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/bf02883426 · Cited by 208 · see citing works
Moylan, S., Jacka, F. N., Pasco, J. A., & Berk, M. (2013) · Brain and Behavior · doi:10.1002/brb3.137 · Cited by 186 · see citing works
The effects of depressed mood on smoking cessation: Mediation by postcessation self-efficacy.
Cinciripini, P. M., Wetter, D. W., Fouladi, R. T., Blalock, J. A., Carter, B. L., Cinciripini, L. G., & Baile, W. F. (2003) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.71.2.292 · Cited by 181 · see citing works
Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection, AIDS, and Smoking Cessation: The Time is Now
Niaura, R., Shadel, W. G., Morrow, K., Tashima, K., Flanigan, T., & Abrams, D. B. (2000) · Clinical Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1086/314048 · Cited by 176 · see citing works
Prevalence of smoking in psychiatric patients
Poirier, M.-F., Canceil, O., Baylé, F., Millet, B., Bourdel, M.-C., Moatti, C., Olié, J.-P., & Attar-Lévy, D. (2002) · Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/s0278-5846(01)00304-9 · Cited by 150 · see citing works
Patterns of change in depressive symptoms during smoking cessation: Who's at risk for relapse?
Burgess, E. S., Brown, R. A., Kahler, C. W., Niaura, R., Abrams, D. B., Goldstein, M. G., & Miller, I. W. (2002) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-006x.70.2.356 · Cited by 140 · see citing works
Ouagazzal, A.-M., Kenny, P. J., & File, S. E. (1999) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s002130050976 · Cited by 121 · see citing works
Effects of transderman nicotine on mood and sleep in nonsmoking major depresssed patients
Salín-Pascual, R. J., Galicia-Polo, L., Drucker-Colín, R., de la Fuente, J. R., Drucker-Colín, R., & Salín-Pascual, R. J. (1995) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/bf02246496 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
Delfino, R. J., Jamner, L. D., & Whalen, C. K. (2001) · Nicotine & Tobacco Research · doi:10.1080/14622200110050466 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
Park, E. R., Chang, Y., Quinn, V., Regan, S., Cohen, L., Viguera, A., Psaros, C., Ross, K., & Rigotti, N. (2009) · Nicotine & Tobacco Research · doi:10.1093/ntr/ntp053 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
Correlates of continued smoking versus cessation among survivors of smoking-related cancers
Berg, C. J., Thomas, A. N., Mertens, A. C., Schauer, G. L., Pinsker, E. A., Ahluwalia, J. S., & Khuri, F. R. (2013) · Psycho-Oncology · doi:10.1002/pon.3077 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
Zvolensky (2001) · doi:10.1016/s0306-4603(01)00242-8 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
Schleicher, H. E., Harris, K. J., Catley, D., & Nazir, N. (2009) · Journal of American College Health · doi:10.3200/jach.57.5.507-512 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Negative affect combines with smoking outcome expectancies to predict smoking behavior over time.
Cohen, L. M., McCarthy, D. M., Brown, S. A., & Myers, M. G. (2002) · Psychology of Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1037/0893-164x.16.2.91 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Extended treatment with bupropion SR for cigarette smoking cessation
Killen, J. D., Fortmann, S. P., Murphy, G. M., Hayward, C., Arredondo, C., Cromp, D., Celio, M., Abe, L., Wang, Y., & Schatzberg, A. F. (2006) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.74.2.286 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
Cigarette smoking and depressive symptoms: A longitudinal study of adolescents and young adults
Brook, J. S., Schuster, E., & Zhang, C. (2004) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.2466/pr0.95.1.159-166 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Iwasaki, M., Akechi, T., Uchitomi, Y., & Tsugane, S. (2005) · Annals of Epidemiology · doi:10.1016/j.annepidem.2004.08.011 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Nicotine addiction and psychiatric disorders
Kutlu, M. G., Parikh, V., & Gould, T. J. (2015) · International Review of Neurobiology · doi:10.1016/bs.irn.2015.08.004 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Mental Disorders and Cigarette Use among Adults in the United States
Goodwin, R. D., Zvolensky, M. J., Keyes, K. M., & Hasin, D. S. (2012) · The American Journal on Addictions · doi:10.1111/j.1521-0391.2012.00263.x · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Panic disorder: from respiration to the homeostatic brain
Perna, G., Caldirola, D., & Bellodi, L. (2004) · Acta Neuropsychiatrica · doi:10.1111/j.0924-2708.2004.0080.x · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Laviolette, S. R. (2021) · Neuropharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2020.108411 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Decreased anxiety-like behavior in beta3 nicotinic receptor subunit knockout mice
Booker, T. K., Butt, C. M., Wehner, J. M., Heinemann, S. F., & Collins, A. C. (2007) · Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.pbb.2007.04.011 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Anxiety disorders in young people: a population-based study
Mondin, T. C., Konradt, C. E., Cardoso, T. D. A., Quevedo, L. D. A., Jansen, K., Mattos, L. D. D., Pinheiro, R. T., & Silva, R. A. D. (2013) · Revista Brasileira de Psiquiatria · doi:10.1590/1516-4446-2013-1155 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Prinstein, M. J., & La Greca, A. M. (2009) · Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0013949 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Major depression among adolescent smokers undergoing treatment for nicotine dependence
Killen, J. D., Robinson, T. N., Ammerman, S., Hayward, C., Rogers, J., Samuels, D., & Schatzberg, A. F. (2004) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2004.02.029 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
- Authors
- Breslau, N.
- Affiliations
- Henry Ford Hospital (US)
- Corresponding author
- Breslau, Naomi
- Venue
- Archives of General Psychiatry
- Publisher
- American Medical Association (AMA)
- Published
- 1991-12-01
- Volume
- 48
- Issue
- 12
- Pages
- 1069
- ISSN
- 0003-990X (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2134845443
- Cited by
- 634
- References
- 30
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 17 · 2024: 5 · 2023: 4 · 2022: 1 · 2021: 6 · 2020: 6 · 2019: 6 · 2018: 7 · 2017: 14 · 2016: 14 · 2015: 15 · 2014: 16 · 2013: 21 · 2012: 27
- FWCI
- 7.67
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Archives of General Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (5k02mh000380-10)
- National Institute of Mental Health (KO2 MH-00380)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology › Smoking Behavior and Cessation
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Epidemiology › Substance Abuse Treatment and Outcomes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Mental Health Treatment and Access
- Keywords
- nicotine dependence, major depressive disorder, anxiety disorders, young adults, substance dependence, alcoholism, cannabis use disorder, cocaine dependence, smoking, psychiatric comorbidity, lifetime prevalence
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Anxiety Disorders, Depressive Disorder, Female, Humans, Male, Nicotine, Severity of Illness Index, Tobacco Use Disorder, Comorbidity, Confidence Intervals, Odds Ratio, Substance-Related Disorders
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
