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Reaction Time Variability in ADHD: A Review
Open accessAbstract
For the past decade, intra-individual variability in reaction times on computerized tasks has become a central focus of cognitive research on Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Numerous studies document increased reaction time variability among children and adults with ADHD, relative to typically developing controls. However, direct comparisons with other disorders with heightened reaction time variability are virtually nonexistent, despite their potential to inform our understanding of the phenomenon. A growing literature examines the sensitivity of reaction time variability to theoretically and clinically relevant manipulations. There is strong evidence that stimulus treatment reduces reaction time variability during a range of cognitive tasks, but the literature is mixed regarding the impact of motivational incentives and variation in stimulus event rate. Most studies of reaction time variability implicitly assume that heightened reaction time variability reflects occasional lapses in attention, and the dominant neurophysiological interpretation suggests this variability is linked to intrusions of task-negative brain network activity during task performance. Work examining the behavioral and neurophysiological correlates of reaction time variability provides some support for these hypotheses, but considerably more work is needed in this area. Finally, because conclusions from each of domains reviewed are limited by the wide range of measures used to measure reaction time variability, this review highlights the need for increased attention to the cognitive and motivational context in which variability is assessed and recommends that future work always supplement macro-level variability indices with metrics that isolate particular components of reaction time variability.
Verified 2026-10-06 · 18 references not checked yet
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TL;DR
This review synthesizes evidence that ADHD is associated with greater intra-individual reaction time variability across computerized tasks, with intermittent long responses as a key component. It argues that this variability is not specific to ADHD and that measurement choices, task context, and neurophysiological models need refinement.
Key findings
- ADHD groups show higher reaction time variability than controls across working memory, attention, inhibitory control, and choice-discrimination tasks, in both children and adults; these differences are often larger than those seen on other neuropsychological indicators.
- Elevated variability also occurs in autism, schizophrenia, bipolar disorder with psychotic symptoms, traumatic brain injury, early Alzheimer’s dementia, and aging/dementia, so it is not unique to ADHD.
- Ex-Gaussian studies suggest ADHD-related variability is driven mainly by tau, the right-skewed tail of the reaction time distribution, consistent with occasional attentional lapses; standard deviation measures correlate strongly with mean reaction time (about 0.90), complicating interpretation, and one study reported a small fast-portion effect size of 0.08.
- Stimulant medication attenuates or normalizes variability, especially tau and Fourier-based oscillation measures; faster stimulus event rates reduce ADHD-related variability, while reward/incentive effects are mixed, with some evidence that fast event rate plus reward may work synergistically. Neurophysiological accounts implicate frontal dysfunction, poor default-mode network suppression, and lower signal-to-noise ratios.
Methods
- Narrative review of published cognitive, behavioral, neuroimaging, task-manipulation, and medication studies on reaction time variability in ADHD; no new participants or primary data are reported.
- The main analysis is a qualitative synthesis across studies, with emphasis on ex-Gaussian and Fourier-transform metrics where available.
Limitations
- Stated: conclusions are constrained by the wide range of variability measures used; most studies rely on reaction time standard deviation or coefficient of variation, which are too molar and confounded with mean reaction time, so component-specific metrics are needed.
- Stated: few direct comparisons exist with other disorders showing high variability, few neuroimaging studies specifically examine variability in ADHD, findings for incentives and event rate are mixed, and it remains unclear whether variability is a cause or consequence.
- Evident from the text: as a narrative review, it does not report a systematic search strategy, risk-of-bias assessment, or meta-analytic pooling.
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Claims the paper makes
48 Not checked yet · 25 Own interpretation · 7 No basis given · 1 Supported · 1 Supported so far
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“In addition, results showed the effects of medication were of the largest magnitude and most consistent for RTV indicators, especially ex-Gaussian tau, compared to other performance indicators, such as RT speed and task accuracy.”
§ Reaction Time Variability in ADHD: A Review > Effects of Stimulant Medication on RTV in ADHD
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [41] Epstein, 2011, Effects of stimulant medication, incentives, and event rate on reaction time variability in children with ADHD, Neuropsychopharmacology source
The Discussion (page unavailable) states that medication effects were largest in magnitude on reaction-time variability indicators and that ex-Gaussian tau most reliably detected those effects. It also reports no effect on reaction-time speed and improved accuracy on only two of five tasks. (LLM, conf=0.94)
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In the paper
“Research using ex-Gaussian parameters has shown that ADHD-related RTV is largely the result of an elevation in tau [10,13,32].”
§ Reaction Time Variability in ADHD: A Review > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [10] Hervey, 2006, Eugene Arnold L, Keith Conners C, et al. Reaction time distribution analysis of neuropsychological performance in an ADHD sample, Child Neuropsychol source
- Not checked yetcites [13] Vaurio, 2009, Increased intra-individual reaction time variability in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder across response inhibition tasks with different cognitive demands, Neuropsychologia source
- Not checked yetcites [32] Leth-Steensen, 2000, Mean response times, variability, and skew in the responding of ADHD children: a response time distributional approach, Acta Psychol (Amst) source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Numerous studies document increased reaction time variability among children and adults with ADHD, relative to typically developing controls.”
- Also stated in: § Introduction · boosted
“Elevated RTV among individuals with ADHD compared with typically-developing children has been documented across multiple studies using a wide variety of computerized tasks”
§ Reaction Time Variability in ADHD: A Review > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [5] Sonuga-Barke, 2008, Executive dysfunction and delay aversion in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: nosologic and diagnostic implications, Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am source
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Also stated in: § Introduction · boosted
In the paper
“Regarding the differences between ADHD subtypes on RTV in the research conducted to date, there are few, if any, differences in RTV across the ADHD subtypes [13,[47][48][49][50][51].”
§ Reaction Time Variability in ADHD: A Review > Behavioral Correlates
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [13,[47][48][49][50][51]
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, both RTSD and CV face a second obstacle.They are too molar to provide information regarding specific aspects of the RTV construct, particularly the asymmetrical positive skew that occasional lapses in attention, which would be expected to produce.”
§ Reaction Time Variability in ADHD: A Review > Introduction
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“These ADHD between-group differences on RTV tend to be larger in magnitude than most other neuropsychological indicators [15].”
§ Reaction Time Variability in ADHD: A Review > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [15] Epstein, 2011, Evidence for higher reaction time variability for children with ADHD on a range of cognitive tasks including reward and event rate manipulations, Neuropsychology source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In addition, increased RTV has been documented in both pediatric [16,17] and adult ADHD samples [18,19].”
§ Reaction Time Variability in ADHD: A Review > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [16] Klotz, 2011, Relationship between reaction time variability and motor skill development in ADHD, Child Neuropsychol
- Not checked yetcites [17] Desman, 2008, Deficit in response inhibition in children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): impact of motivation?, Child Neuropsychol source
- Not checked yetcites [18] Adams, 2011, Does response variability predict distractibility among adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder?, Psychol Assess source
- Not checked yetcites [19] Dhar, 2010, Information processing differences and similarities in adults with dyslexia and adults with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder during a Continuous Performance Test: a study of cortical potentials, Neuropsychologia source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Only a few exceptions exist, with some reporting greater RTV among children with ADHD-Combined Type compared with ADHD-Inattentive Type on certain tasks [41].”
§ Reaction Time Variability in ADHD: A Review > Behavioral Correlates
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [41] Epstein, 2011, Effects of stimulant medication, incentives, and event rate on reaction time variability in children with ADHD, Neuropsychopharmacology source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The vast majority of studies documenting increased RTV in ADHD have used a reaction time standard deviation (RTSD)”
§ Reaction Time Variability in ADHD: A Review > Introduction
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Two studies in the literature have suggested that combining fast ER and reward can synergistically improve RTV [14,91].”
§ Reaction Time Variability in ADHD: A Review > Reaction Time Variability Manipulations
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [14] Andreou, 2007, Reaction time performance in ADHD: improvement under fast-incentive condition and familial effects, Psychol Med
- Not checked yetcites [91] Kuntsi, 2009, Why cognitive performance in ADHD may not reveal true potential: findings from a large population-based sample, J Int Neuropsychol Soc source
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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- Probably not a substantial claim. 7
- It may state two separate claims as one. 33
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“In ADHD research, RTV in ADHD is typically interpreted (at least implicitly) as reflecting occasional lapses in attention”
§ Reaction Time Variability in ADHD: A Review > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [10] Hervey, 2006, Eugene Arnold L, Keith Conners C, et al. Reaction time distribution analysis of neuropsychological performance in an ADHD sample, Child Neuropsychol source
- Not checked yetcites [32] Leth-Steensen, 2000, Mean response times, variability, and skew in the responding of ADHD children: a response time distributional approach, Acta Psychol (Amst) source
- Supportedcites [33] Epstein, 2010, Examining predictors of reaction times in children with ADHD and normal controls, J Int Neuropsychol Soc source
The Discussion (page unavailable) says that long reaction times have been interpreted as indicative of attentional lapses. The paper also links increased reaction-time variability in ADHD to recurring long reaction times, supporting the claimed interpretation without asserting that lapses explain all variability. (LLM, conf=0.88)
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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In the paper
“Where relations between RTV and the ADHD symptom domains have been examined, RTV has correlated with measures of behavioral inattention [48,52,53] but has also been found to correlate with hyperactivityimpulsivity in a minority of studies”
§ Reaction Time Variability in ADHD: A Review > Behavioral Correlates
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [48] Nigg, 1999, The ADHD response-inhibition deficit as measured by the stop task: replication with DSM-IV combined type, extension, and qualification, J Abnorm Child Psychol source
- Not checked yetcites [52] Wahlstedt, 2009, Neuropsychological deficits in relation to symptoms of ADHD: independent contributions and interactions, Child Neuropsychol source
- Not checked yetcites [53] Wahlstedt, 2009, Heterogeneity in ADHD: neuropsychological pathways, comorbidity and symptom domains, J Abnorm Child Psychol source
- Not checked yetcites [54] Gomez-Guerrero, 2011, Response-time variability is related to parent ratings of inattention, hyperactivity, and executive function, J Atten Disord source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Hypotheses emphasizing several factors have been proposed: a temporal processing deficit [34], a deficit in the ability to appropriately modulate very low-frequency fluctuations in neuronal activity [35], inefficiency in the deployment of attention by executive control processes [36], deficit of sustained attention [10,32], and difficulties with the regulation of energetic state [14,[37][38][39].”
§ Reaction Time Variability in ADHD: A Review > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [34] Toplak, 2006, Temporal information processing in ADHD: findings to date and new methods, J Neurosci Methods source
- Not checked yetcites [35] Castellanos, 2005, Varieties of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder-related intra-individual variability, Biol Psychiatry source
- Not checked yetcites [36] Bellgrove, 2004, The functional neuroanatomical correlates of response variability: evidence from a response inhibition task, Neuropsychologia source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
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In the paper
“One commonality among these various populations with increased RTV are problems with attention, although there seems to be considerable variability in the types of attentional difficulties across populations”
§ Reaction Time Variability in ADHD: A Review > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [29] Egeland, 2010, Frequency of attention deficit in first-episode schizophrenia compared to ADHD, Appl Neuropsychol source
- Not checked yetcites [30] Thaler, 2010, Attention processing abnormalities in children with traumatic brain injury and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: differential impairment of component processes, J Clin Exp Neuropsychol source
- Not checked yetcites [31] Parasuraman, 1993, Attention and driving. Assessment in elderly individuals with dementia, Clin Geriatr Med source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, the precise psychological and neurophysiological meaning of RTV in ADHD is continually being debated.”
§ Reaction Time Variability in ADHD: A Review > Introduction
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Unfortunately, RTSD almost always correlates quite highly (e.g., r00.90; [17]) with the mean reaction time [18,40,41] that 1 cannot distinguish speed and variability limiting the clarity of the psychological or neurophysiological interpretation.”
§ Reaction Time Variability in ADHD: A Review > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [17] Desman, 2008, Deficit in response inhibition in children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): impact of motivation?, Child Neuropsychol source
- Not checked yetcites [18] Adams, 2011, Does response variability predict distractibility among adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder?, Psychol Assess source
- Not checked yetcites [40] Wagenmakers, 2007, On the linear relation between the mean and the standard deviation of a response time distribution, Psychol Rev source
- Not checked yetcites [41] Epstein, 2011, Effects of stimulant medication, incentives, and event rate on reaction time variability in children with ADHD, Neuropsychopharmacology source
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Unfortunately, there have been very few studies that have examined the periodicity of long RTs, and results from these studies have been mixed in regard to the frequency at which long RTs occur [9,13,35,46].”
§ Reaction Time Variability in ADHD: A Review > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [9] Johnson, 2007, Response variability in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: evidence for neuropsychological heterogeneity, Neuropsychologia source
- Not checked yetcites [13] Vaurio, 2009, Increased intra-individual reaction time variability in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder across response inhibition tasks with different cognitive demands, Neuropsychologia source
- Not checked yetcites [35] Castellanos, 2005, Varieties of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder-related intra-individual variability, Biol Psychiatry source
- Not checked yetcites [46] Di Martino, 2008, Decomposing intra-subject variability in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, Biol Psychiatry source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“It should also be noted that 1 study, using ex-Gaussian parameters, reported significant differences, albeit with a small effect size (0.08) between ADHD and control groups in the fast portion of the RT distribution, which was interpreted as reflecting different causal mechanisms for the potentially multidimensional construct of RTV [44].”
§ Reaction Time Variability in ADHD: A Review > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [44] Williams, 2007, Reaction time performance in adolescents with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: evidence of inconsistency in the fast and slow portions of the RT distribution, J Clin Exp Neuropsychol source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Higher tau values are produced by RT distributions with a larger rightward skew or tail, consistent with a lapse of attention framework.”
§ Reaction Time Variability in ADHD: A Review > Introduction
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Elevated RTV has been observed in individuals with high functioning autism [20], schizophrenia [21], bipolar disorder with psychotic symptoms [22], traumatic brain injury [23][24][25][26], and early stage Alzheimer's dementia [27,28].”
§ Reaction Time Variability in ADHD: A Review > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [20] Verte, 2005, Executive functioning in children with autism and Tourette syndrome, Dev Psychopathol source
- Not checked yetcites [21] Kaiser, 2008, Intra-individual reaction time variability in schizophrenia, depression and borderline personality disorder, Brain Cogn source
- Not checked yetcites [22] Bora, 2006, Sustained attention deficits in manic and euthymic patients with bipolar disorder, Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Omission errors occur when a patient does not respond to a target stimulus and has been linked to attentional lapses [56], thus suggesting that long RTs, the primary cause of RTV, are due to inattention.”
§ Reaction Time Variability in ADHD: A Review > Behavioral Correlates
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [56] Corkum, 1993, Is the Continuous Performance Task a valuable research tool for use with children with Attention-Deficit-Hyperactivity Disorder?, J Child Psychol Psychiatry source
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The task-negative network among individuals with ADHD is of higher intensity and likely dysfunctional in terms of connectivity.”
§ Reaction Time Variability in ADHD: A Review > ADHD Neuroimaging Literature
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Some studies have found that ADHD-related increases in RTV are attenuated when rewards for performance are provided [12,14,[90][91][92], whereas others have not found this effect of reward [49,93].”
§ Reaction Time Variability in ADHD: A Review > Reaction Time Variability Manipulations
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [12,14,[90][91][92]
- Not checked yetcites [49] Shanahan, 2008, Do motivational incentives reduce the inhibition deficit in ADHD?, Dev Neuropsychol source
- Not checked yetcites [93] Luman, 2008, Modulation of response timein in ADHD, effects of reinforcement valence and magnitude, J Abnorm Child Psychol source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In a study examining whether RTV was specifically correlated with individual ADHD symptoms (e.g., short attention span), significant relations were observed between RTV and all 18 ADHD symptoms, suggesting no specificity between RTVand specific ADHD behaviors [55].”
§ Reaction Time Variability in ADHD: A Review > Behavioral Correlates
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [55] Epstein, 2003, Relations between Continuous Performance Test performance measures and ADHD behaviors, J Abnorm Child Psychol source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“It is interesting that individuals with lower RTV tend to display increased activation in motor areas [62], suggesting that reliance on more efficient networks, such as premotor circuitry rather than higher order cognitive networks, reduces RTV.”
§ Reaction Time Variability in ADHD: A Review > Neurophysiological Correlates of RTV
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [62] Simmonds, 2007, Functional brain correlates of response time variability in children, Neuropsychologia source
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“To date, neuroimaging research has linked RTV to both abnormalities in frontal lobe volumes and brain activation, as well as what appears to be insufficient suppression of the DMN.”
§ Reaction Time Variability in ADHD: A Review > Neurophysiological Correlates of RTV
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Children with ADHD demonstrated pronounced slowing (i.e., long RTs) on the trial before an omission error, as well as slowing, although not nearly as pronounced, on trials following an omission error.”
§ Reaction Time Variability in ADHD: A Review > Behavioral Correlates
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [33] Epstein, 2010, Examining predictors of reaction times in children with ADHD and normal controls, J Int Neuropsychol Soc source
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In general, individuals with ADHD display significantly higher resting state activation [70,71] and reduced DMN homogeneity [72][73][74][75][76].”
§ Reaction Time Variability in ADHD: A Review > ADHD Neuroimaging Literature
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [70] Tian, 2008, Enhanced resting-state brain activities in ADHD patients: a fMRI study, Brain Dev source
- Not checked yetcites [71] Tian, 2006, Altered resting-state functional connectivity patterns of anterior cingulate cortex in adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, Neurosci Lett source
- Not checked yetcites [72][73][74][75][76]
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Children with ADHD have also been shown to be less able to deactivate the DMN than controls, and this inability to deactivate the DMN has been directly related to RTV [77].”
§ Reaction Time Variability in ADHD: A Review > ADHD Neuroimaging Literature
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [77] Fassbender, 2009, A lack of default network suppression is linked to increased distractibility in ADHD, Brain Res source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“One explanation for this set of results is that individuals with ADHD possess dual deficits such that not only do individuals with ADHD have more active tasknegative activation at rest, but they also have less task-positive activation during cognitive performance.”
§ Reaction Time Variability in ADHD: A Review > ADHD Neuroimaging Literature
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Brain activation in the DMN is negatively correlated with activation in task positive regions [65][66][67] and positively correlated with RT fluctuations [68].”
§ Reaction Time Variability in ADHD: A Review > Neurophysiological Correlates of RTV
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [65][66][67]
- Not checked yetcites [68] Helps, 2009, The attenuation of very low frequency brain oscillations in transitions from a rest state to active attention, J Psychophysiol source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Hence, quickening the pace of the task creates a raised energetic state among children with ADHD, thereby normalizing RTV.”
§ Reaction Time Variability in ADHD: A Review > Reaction Time Variability Manipulations
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Signal-to-noise ratios are affected by an inability to consistently suppress the DMN, which interferes with task positive activation if it remains activated during cognitive performance, [69].”
§ Reaction Time Variability in ADHD: A Review > Neurophysiological Correlates of RTV
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [69] MacDonald, 2009, Neural underpinnings of within-person variability in cognitive functioning, Psychol Aging source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As a result, tasknegative activation overcomes task-positive activation more frequently, which leads to intermittent long RTs and thus higher levels of RTV.”
§ Reaction Time Variability in ADHD: A Review > ADHD Neuroimaging Literature
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Such correlational studies suggest an overall pattern of higher frontal lobe activation, particularly the rostral supplementary motor area, but do not specifically link instances of long RTs to increased frontal lobe activity.”
§ Reaction Time Variability in ADHD: A Review > Neurophysiological Correlates of RTV
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“One explanation for this pattern of effects is provided by the state regulation dysfunction model, which suggests that short ERs may increase activation states, whereas long ERs may lead to underactivation”
§ Reaction Time Variability in ADHD: A Review > Reaction Time Variability Manipulations
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [86] van der Meere, 2005, Response inhibition and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder with and without Oppositional Defiant Disorder screened from a community sample, Dev Neuropsychol source
- Not checked yetcites [83] Sergeant, 2005, Modeling attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a critical appraisal of the cognitive-energetic model, Biol Psychiatry source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Research examining relations between RTV and the ADHD symptom domains or ADHD subtypes has not been convincingly associated with either ADHD symptom domain or any specific ADHD symptoms, although relations between RTV and inattention seem to be more consistent in the literature [48,52,53].”
§ Reaction Time Variability in ADHD: A Review > Behavioral Correlates
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [48] Nigg, 1999, The ADHD response-inhibition deficit as measured by the stop task: replication with DSM-IV combined type, extension, and qualification, J Abnorm Child Psychol source
- Not checked yetcites [52] Wahlstedt, 2009, Neuropsychological deficits in relation to symptoms of ADHD: independent contributions and interactions, Child Neuropsychol source
- Not checked yetcites [53] Wahlstedt, 2009, Heterogeneity in ADHD: neuropsychological pathways, comorbidity and symptom domains, J Abnorm Child Psychol source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“there is a burgeoning literature on cognitive training in ADHD [111, 112]”
§ Reaction Time Variability in ADHD: A Review > Summary and Future Directions
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [111] Epstein, 2010, Evidence for cognitive training as a treatment strategy for children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, J ADHD Relat Disord
- Not checked yetcites [112] Tamm, 2007, Can attention itself be trained? Attention training for children at risk for ADHD. Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: Concepts, Controversies, New Directions, New York: Informa Healthcare
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although it is well-documented that speeding the ERs attenuates ADHD-related RTV differences, research on the effects of the reward is quite mixed, possibly because the effects of incentives are not robust or because the magnitude, saliency, or targets of incentives applied has varied considerably across studies.”
§ Reaction Time Variability in ADHD: A Review > Reaction Time Variability Manipulations
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Still another study suggests the effects of reward may be taskspecific because reward improved performance only on tasks require inhibition [41].”
§ Reaction Time Variability in ADHD: A Review > Reaction Time Variability Manipulations
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [41] Epstein, 2011, Effects of stimulant medication, incentives, and event rate on reaction time variability in children with ADHD, Neuropsychopharmacology source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“ERs and rewards are both task manipulations that target the energetic and motivational states of the individuals.”
§ Reaction Time Variability in ADHD: A Review > Reaction Time Variability Manipulations
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“For example, in a study using ex-Gaussian indicators, McAuley et al. [110] demonstrated that older adults differed from young adults on both ex-Gaussian variance indicators, sigma, and tau, suggesting that RTV in older adults is due to both variable responding (sigma) and extreme responding (tau), as opposed to patients with ADHD for whom RTV is composed primarily of extreme responses, tau.”
§ Reaction Time Variability in ADHD: A Review > Summary and Future Directions
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [110] McAuley, 2006, Revisiting inhibitory control across the life span: insights from the ex-Gaussian distribution, Dev Neuropsychol source
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Medication effects on ex-Gaussian tau and FFT indicators suggest that medication specifically reduces positive distributional skew likely by decreasing the number, frequency, and/or magnitude of intermittent long RTs.”
§ Reaction Time Variability in ADHD: A Review > Effects of Stimulant Medication on RTV in ADHD
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“These results suggest that medication specifically reduces intermittent long RTs, which is consistent with other studies showing that medication reduces tau [100] and reduces the peak and skew of RT distributions [43].”
§ Reaction Time Variability in ADHD: A Review > Effects of Stimulant Medication on RTV in ADHD
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [100] Teicher, 2004, Novel strategy for the analysis of CPT data provides new insight into the effects of methylphenidate on attentional states in children with ADHD, J Child Adolesc Psychopharm source
- Not checked yetcites [43] Spencer, 2009, Stimulant treatment reduces lapses in attention among children with ADHD: the effects of methylphenidate on intra-individual response time distributions, J Abnorm Child Psychol source
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In general, ADHD-related increases in RTV are attenuated, and may even normalize, with stimulant medication [35,41,43,[97][98][99][100][101][102].”
§ Reaction Time Variability in ADHD: A Review > Effects of Stimulant Medication on RTV in ADHD
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [35,41,43,[97][98][99][100][101][102]
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Also, most studies using fast Fourier transform (FFT) analyses have demonstrated that stimulant medication attenuated [35] or normalized [103] long RT oscillations in individuals with ADHD compared with controls, although 1 study failed to replicate this effect [104].”
§ Reaction Time Variability in ADHD: A Review > Effects of Stimulant Medication on RTV in ADHD
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [35] Castellanos, 2005, Varieties of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder-related intra-individual variability, Biol Psychiatry source
- Not checked yetcites [103] Johnson, 2008, Dissociation in response to methylphenidate on response variability in a group of medication naive children with ADHD, Neuropsychologia source
- Not checked yetcites [104] Tucha, 2006, Effects of methylphenidate on multiple components of attention in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, Psychopharmacol source
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is likely that although increased RTV is present across populations, the characteristics of RTV across populations is likely different.”
§ Reaction Time Variability in ADHD: A Review > Summary and Future Directions
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper relies on this without support.
Direct comparisons of reaction time variability between ADHD and other disorders with heightened reaction time variability are virtually nonexistent.
“However, direct comparisons with other disorders with heightened reaction time variability are virtually nonexistent, despite their potential to inform our understanding of the phenomenon.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The default mode network is a task-negative network that must be suppressed during task performance.
“The DMN is considered a task negative network because it must be suppressed concomitant with activation in the task positive network (i.e., the neural network required to perform the cognitive task at hand).”
The paper relies on this without support.
Long reaction times are the primary cause of reaction time variability in patients with ADHD.
“which appears to be the primary cause of RTV for patients with ADHD.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Neuroimaging research on reaction time variability in ADHD is much less common than in typically developing groups.
“there are many fewer neuroimaging studies specifically investigating the phenomenon of RTV in ADHD.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Increased RTV is one of the most consistent findings in studies of children and adults with ADHD (Kofler et al. 2013; Tamm et al. 2012).”
From Reaction Time Variability and Electrophysiological Indices of Performance Monitoring in Youths With Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (2026) · cites this paper as Tamm et al. 2012
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Intra-individual variability in neuropsychological tasks, rather than a constant level of impairment, is characteristic of ADHD (Spencer et al. 2009; Tamm et al. 2012)”
From Associations of sleep disturbance with ADHD: implications for treatment (2015) · cites this paper as Tamm et al. 2012
In the citing paper
“This confirms our hypothesis, which was based on previous studies identifying RTV as one of the most robust features of ADHD (Kofler et al., 2013; Tamm et al., 2012).”
From Cognitive heterogeneity in adult attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A systematic analysis of neuropsychological measurements (2015) · cites this paper as Tamm et al., 2012
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Metadata
- Authors
- Tamm, L., Narad, M. E., Antonini, T. N., O'Brien, K. M., Hawk, L. W., & Epstein, J. N.
- Affiliations
- Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center (US)
- University at Buffalo, State University of New York (US)
- Corresponding author
- Tamm, Leanne
- Venue
- Neurotherapeutics
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2012-07
- Volume
- 9
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 500-508
- ISSN
- 1878-7479 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC3441931
- OpenAlex
- W2021199892
- Semantic Scholar
- dcdc66de076d4895514570583dbbc7c0bbd00088
- Cited by
- 324
- References
- 114
- Citations by year
- 2026: 22 · 2025: 12 · 2024: 18 · 2023: 28 · 2022: 29 · 2021: 35 · 2020: 25 · 2019: 27 · 2018: 25 · 2017: 20 · 2016: 27 · 2015: 20 · 2014: 24 · 2013: 11 · 2012: 1
- FWCI
- 2.41
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Neurotherapeutics (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (K24MH064478)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
- Keywords
- attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, reaction time variability, motivational incentives, attentional lapses, task-negative network, neurophysiological correlates, variability indices
- MeSH terms
- Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity, Humans, Inhibition, Psychological, Motivation, Neuropsychological Tests, Reaction Time
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