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Cited by 40Primate Behavior and EcologyNeuroendocrine regulation and behaviorAnimal Behavior and Reproduction

Inequity aversion strategies between marmosets are influenced by partner familiarity and sex but not by oxytocin

Open access
Mustoe, Aaryn C., Harnisch, April M., Hochfelder, Benjamin, Cavanaugh, Jon, French, Jeffrey A.·2016·Animal Behaviour
DOI 10.1016/j.anbehav.2016.01.025PMC PMC4802974
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Abstract

Cooperation among individuals depends, in large part, on a sense of fairness. Many cooperating non-human primates (NHPs) show inequity aversion, (i.e., negative responses to unequal outcomes), and these responses toward inequity likely evolved as a means to preserve the advantages of cooperative relationships. However, marmosets (Callithrix spp.) tend to show little or no inequity aversion, despite the high occurrence of prosociality and cooperative-breeding in callitrichid monkeys. Oxytocin [OXT] has been implicated in a wide variety of social processes, but little is known about whether OXT modulates inequity aversion toward others. We used a tray pulling task to evaluate whether marmosets would donate superior rewards to their long-term pairmate or an opposite-sex stranger following OXT, OXT antagonist, and saline treatments. We found that marmosets show inequity aversion, and this inequity aversion is socially- and sex-specific. Male marmosets show inequity aversion toward their pairmates but not strangers, and female marmosets do not show inequity aversion. OXT treatments did not significantly influence inequity aversion in marmosets. While OXT may modulate prosocial preferences, the motivations underlying cooperative relationships, such as inequity aversion, are multifaceted. More research is needed to evaluate the evolutionary origins, biological processes, and social contexts that influence complex phenotypes like inequity aversion. Inequity aversion can differ within species in important and distinct ways including between individuals who do and do not share a cooperative relationship. Overall, these findings support the view that inequity aversion is an important behavioural strategy for the maintenance of cooperative relationships.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

In a tray-pulling task, marmosets showed context-dependent inequity aversion: males avoided qualitative inequity toward pairmates but not strangers, while females did not show inequity aversion. Oxytocin, oxytocin antagonist, and saline treatments did not significantly alter these responses.

Key findings

  • Marmosets showed inequity tolerance in the quantitative inequity vs. null comparison, pulling the inequity tray more than null trays (F1,6 = 9.91, P = 0.02, η2 = 0.62), and this was strongest with their pairmate (F2,12 = 8.76, P < 0.01, η2 = 0.59).
  • In qualitative inequity vs. equity, donors pulled inequity trays less than equity trays (F1,6 = 67.85, P < 0.01, η2 = 0.92), indicating inequity aversion; this was higher in males than females (F1,6 = 24.97, P < 0.01, η2 = 0.81), with a significant tray × sex × partner interaction (F2,12 = 5.32, P = 0.02, η2 = 0.47) such that males showed inequity aversion only with their pairmate (t3 = 6.88, P < 0.01).
  • In qualitative inequity vs. selfish, marmosets pulled inequity trays less than selfish trays (F1,6 = 16.30, P < 0.01, η2 = 0.73); overall this was not socially or sex-specific, but a sex × partner interaction (F2,12 = 3.85, P = 0.05, η2 = 0.39) again reflected the pattern limited to males with their pairmate (t3 = 4.42, P = 0.02).
  • OXT treatments did not significantly influence inequity aversion or tolerance in any comparison (quantitative vs. null: F3,18 = 0.17, P = 0.92, η2 = 0.03; qualitative vs. equity: F3,18 = 0.13, P = 0.94, η2 = 0.02; qualitative vs. selfish: F3,18 = 0.15, P = 0.93, η2 = 0.02), and species did not significantly interact with tray pulling in any comparison.

Methods

  • Eight adult marmosets (C. penicillata: three adult males, two adult females; C. jacchus: one adult male, two adult females) housed in female–male pairs were tested as donors and recipients with their pairmate, an opposite-sex stranger, and alone.
  • A tray-pulling task presented inequity, equity, selfish, and null tray conditions; each session included 15 trials, and marmosets received Pro8-OXT, Leu8-OXT, saline, or an OXT antagonist (OXTa) in a repeated-measures design.
  • Data were analyzed with repeated-measures mixed ANOVA on square-root-transformed tray-pulling rates, with partial η2 reported as effect size.

Limitations

  • The paper states the sample size was small, marmosets lived in pairs rather than family groups, and they had no parental experience, limiting generalizability to other primate prosociality studies.
  • The paper also notes that intranasal OXT may not abundantly penetrate the brain, although previous marmoset studies using this procedure have shown socially-specific effects.
  • Evident from the text: the study used only eight marmosets with uneven species and sex composition, tested only food-sharing/tray-pulling contexts, and had no offspring present, which may constrain conclusions about family-living marmosets and other cooperative domains.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1016/j.anbehav.2016.01.025

Cites

89 of 89 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 75 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data

    OXT treatments did not significantly influence inequity aversion in marmosets.

    “OXT treatments did not significantly influence inequity aversion in marmosets.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The study had sufficient statistical power to detect effects of OXT on inequity aversion.
  • Findingown data

    Female marmosets do not show inequity aversion.

    “Male marmosets show inequity aversion toward their pairmates but not strangers, and female marmosets do not show inequity aversion.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    The frequency of equity tray pulling was higher when tested with their pairmate for both males and females (F2,12 = 4.14, P = 0.04, η2 = 0.41).

    “Furthermore, the frequency of equity tray pulling was higher when tested with their pairmate for both males and females (F2,12 = 4.14, P = 0.04, η2 = 0.41).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Inequity tolerance in marmosets did not significantly change across OXT treatment conditions (F3,18 = 0.17, P = 0.92, η2 = 0.03).

    “This inequity tolerance in marmosets did not significantly change across OXT treatment conditions (F3,18 = 0.17, P = 0.92, η2 = 0.03) (Figure S1).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The study had sufficient statistical power to detect effects of OXT on inequity aversion.
  • Findingown data

    There was a significant partner by sex interaction for frequency of inequity tray pulling (F2,12 = 3.84, P = 0.05, η2 = 0.39), where females showed more frequent inequity tray pulling when tested with their pairmate than strangers (t3 = 3.26, P = 0.04).

    “When examining the frequency of inequity tray pulling specifically, there was a significant partner by sex interaction (F2,12 = 3.84, P = 0.05, η2 = 0.39), where females showed more frequent inequity tray pulling when tested with their pairmate than strangers (t3 = 3.26, P = 0.04) (Figure 3).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 35
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 47

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Male marmosets show inequity aversion toward their pairmates but not strangers.

    “Male marmosets show inequity aversion toward their pairmates but not strangers, and female marmosets do not show inequity aversion.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    There was an overall sex by partner interaction for tray pulling of inequity and selfish trays together (F2,12 = 3.85, P = 0.05, η2 = 0.39), suggesting the same pattern of the inequity aversion being limited to only males when tested with their pairmate (t3 = 4.42, P = 0.02).

    “However, there was an overall sex by partner interaction for tray pulling of inequity and selfish trays together (F2,12 = 3.85, P = 0.05, η2 = 0.39), suggesting the same the pattern of the inequity aversion being limited to only males when tested with their pairmate (t3 = 4.42, P = 0.02) (Figure 4).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Marmosets pulled the inequity tray more frequently than they pulled null trays (F1,6 = 9.91, P = 0.02, η2 = 0.62), suggesting an inequity tolerance and a general prosociality toward others.

    “Marmosets pulled the inequity tray more frequently than they pulled null trays (F1,6 = 9.91, P = 0.02, η2 = 0.62), suggesting an inequity tolerance and a general prosociality toward others.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Marmosets pulled the inequity trays significantly less often than the selfish trays (F1,6 = 16.30, P < 0.01, η2 = 0.73), which also suggests a form of inequity aversion.

    “Marmosets pulled the inequity trays significantly less often than the selfish trays (F1,6 = 16.30, P < 0.01, η2 = 0.73), which also suggests a form of inequity aversion.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The frequency of inequity tray pulling varied by partner familiarity and sex (F2,12 = 3.14, P = 0.08, η2 = 0.34), indicating that males pulled the inequity trays when tested with their pairmate significantly less often than females did (t6 = 4.09, P < 0.01).

    “The frequency of inequity tray pulling varied by partner familiarity and sex (F2,12 = 3.14, P = 0.08, η2 = 0.34), indicating that males pulled the inequity trays when tested with their pairmate significantly less often than females did (t6 = 4.09, P < 0.01) (Figure 4).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    There was a significant three-way interaction for tray condition, sex, and partner (F2,12 = 5.32, P = 0.02, η2 = 0.47), with male marmosets showing inequity aversion only when tested with their pairmate (t3 = 6.88, P < 0.01).

    “However, there was a significant three-way interaction for the tray condition, sex, and partner (F2,12 = 5.32, P = 0.02, η2 = 0.47), with male marmosets showing inequity aversion only when tested with their pairmate (t3 = 6.88, P < 0.01) (Figure 4).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Despite the social-specificity of these responses to inequity, OXT treatment did not influence rates of inequity tray pulling and inequity aversion toward others.

    “Despite the social-specificity of these responses to inequity, OXT treatment did not influence rates of inequity tray pulling and inequity aversion toward others.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The study had sufficient statistical power to detect effects of OXT on inequity aversion.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Only male donors were inequity averse, and this inequity aversion was only toward their pairmate.

    “Our findings support this view, as only male donors were inequity averse, and this inequity aversion was only toward their pairmate.”
    • Also stated in: § DISCUSSION · plain
      “Marmosets only show inequity aversion toward others in specific situations (e.g., males pulling trays that result in better rewards for their pairmate less frequently).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In general, both males and females were inequity tolerant toward strangers, though females were less so.

    “In general, both males and females were inequity tolerant toward strangers, though females were less so.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Male donors displayed greater reduction in pulling qualitative inequity trays when tested with their pairmate, while female donors showed no difference in the rate of pulling qualitative inequity trays when tested with their pairmate.

    “Specifically, male donors displayed greater reduction in pulling qualitative inequity trays when tested with their pairmate, while female donors showed no difference in the rate of pulling qualitative inequity trays when tested with their pairmate.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Responses to inequity were unlikely due to a frustration effect when tested alone; marmosets did not refuse to reward themselves when presented with the lower-quality reward.

    “In the current study, our findings suggest that responses to inequity were unlikely due to a frustration effect when tested alone, i.e., marmosets did not refuse to reward themselves when presented with the lower-quality reward.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    When donors do not receive rewards they are much more tolerant of the inequity; when donors do receive rewards they are much more averse to the inequity.

    “Specifically, when donors do not receive rewards they are much more tolerant of the inequity. And when donors do receive rewards, they are much more averse to the inequity.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Marmosets show inequity aversion, and this inequity aversion is socially- and sex-specific.

    “We found that marmosets show inequity aversion, and this inequity aversion is socially- and sex-specific.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    This lack of inequity aversion in callitrichids suggests either an inability to recognize and/or respond to resource inequities, or that maintaining biparental cooperation may confer a greater benefit to the family group than losing a parental partner due to the avoidance of interactions that lead to minor inequities.

    “This lack of inequity aversion in callitrichids suggests there is either an inability to recognize and/or respond to resource inequities, or that maintaining biparental cooperation may confer a greater benefit to the family group, (e.g., enhanced offspring survival), than losing a parental partner due to the avoidance of interactions that lead to minor inequities (Brosnan, 2011).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Brosnan, 2011 source

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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Callitrichids (marmosets and tamarins) and owl monkeys are not as sensitive to inequity as one might expect given the prevalence of inequity aversion in species with cooperative relationships.

    “Interestingly, callitrichids (marmosets and tamarins) and owl monkeys, species that exhibit biparental cooperation and form long-term pair bonds, are not as sensitive to inequity as one might expect given the prevalence of inequity aversion in species with cooperative relationships (Freeman et al., 2013; Katherine McAuliffe, Shelton, & Stone, 2014a; Neiworth, Johnson, Whillock, Greenberg, & Brown,”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Freeman et al., 2013 source

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    • cites Katherine McAuliffe, Shelton, & Stone, 2014a

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    • cites Neiworth, Johnson, Whillock, Greenberg, & Brown, 2009

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisereasoning

    Investigating inequity aversion strategies in callitrichids serves as a critical test of whether inequity aversion is a requisite for the formation and maintenance of cooperative relationships.

    “Thus, investigating inequity aversion strategies in callitrichids serve as critical test of whether inequity aversion is a requisite for the formation and maintenance of cooperative relationships.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    OXT is critical for maternal-infant bonding and parental behaviour.

    “Of particular interest, OXT is critical for maternal-infant bonding and parental behaviour (Feldman, Gordon, Schneiderman, Weisman, & Zagoory-Sharon, 2010; Feldman, Weller, Zagoory-Sharon, & Levine, 2007)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Feldman, Gordon, Schneiderman, Weisman, & Zagoory-Sharon, 2010 source

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    • cites Feldman, Weller, Zagoory-Sharon, & Levine, 2007 source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Marmosets tend to show little or no inequity aversion, despite the high occurrence of prosociality and cooperative-breeding in callitrichid monkeys.

    “However, marmosets (Callithrix spp.) tend to show little or no inequity aversion, despite the high occurrence of prosociality and cooperative-breeding in callitrichid monkeys.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    New World monkeys (NWMs), including callitrichids, possess notably remarkable interspecific OXT and OXT receptor (OXTR) diversity relative to other mammals.

    “Second, New World monkeys (NWMs), including callitrichids, possess notably remarkable interspecific OXT and OXT receptor (OXTR) diversity relative to other mammals (Babb, Fernandez-Duque, & Schurr, 2015; Lee et al., 2011; Ren et al., 2015; Vargas-Pinilla et al., 2015; Wallis, 2012)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Babb, Fernandez-Duque, & Schurr, 2015 source

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    • cites Lee et al., 2011 source

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    • cites Ren et al., 2015 source

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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisenone given

    Marmosets possess a modified OXT ligand with a leucine to proline (Pro8-OXT) substitution at the eighth amino acid position resulting in a significant change in the structure of the OXT ligand.

    “Specifically, marmosets possess a modified OXT ligand with a leucine to proline (Pro8-OXT) substitution at the eighth amino acid position resulting in a significant change in the structure of the OXT ligand.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The valence and magnitude of OXT effects are, in large part, context specific.

    “While there is a general trend that OXT has mostly enhancing effects on sociality, there is increasing recognition and appreciation that the valence and magnitude of OXT effects are, in large part, context specific (Bartz, Zaki, Bolger, & Ochsner, 2011; van Anders, Goodson, & Kingsbury, 2013).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Bartz, Zaki, Bolger, & Ochsner, 2011

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    • cites van Anders, Goodson, & Kingsbury, 2013 source

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    Premisecitation

    Marmosets are cooperatively-breeding NHPs, highly prosocial, and form long-term male-female cooperative relationships.

    “First, marmosets are cooperatively-breeding NHPs, and in contrast to many other primates, marmosets are highly prosocial and form long-term male-female cooperative relationships (Agmo, Smith, Birnie, & French, 2012; Burkart, Fehr, Efferson, & van Schaik, 2007; Evans, 1983; Schaffner, Shepherd, Santos, & French, 1995).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Agmo, Smith, Birnie, & French, 2012

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    • cites Burkart, Fehr, Efferson, & van Schaik, 2007

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    • cites Evans, 1983 source

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    Premisecitation

    These varied OXT/OXTR systems potentially coevolved to modulate species-specific social behaviour such as social monogamy and paternal care.

    “and these varied OXT/OXTR systems potentially coevolved to modulate species-specific social behaviour such as social monogamy and paternal care (Ren et al., 2015; Vargas-Pinilla et al., 2015).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Ren et al., 2015 source

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    • cites Vargas-Pinilla et al., 2015 source

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    Premisecitation

    Neuropeptide effects are highly diverse across species and social situations.

    “It is also evident that these neuropeptide effects are highly diverse across species and social situations (Goodson, 2013).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Goodson, 2013 source

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    Premisecitation

    OXT influences prosocial decision making in primates.

    “OXT influences prosocial decision making in primates (Brosnan, Talbot, et al., 2015; Chang, Barter, Ebitz, Watson, & Platt, 2012; Mustoe, Cavanaugh, Harnisch, Thompson, & French, 2015)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Brosnan, Talbot, et al., 2015

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    • cites Chang, Barter, Ebitz, Watson, & Platt, 2012

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    • cites Mustoe, Cavanaugh, Harnisch, Thompson, & French, 2015

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    OXT has been emphasized as an important regulator of fairness, trust, cooperation, and competition in humans.

    “OXT has been emphasized as an important regulator of fairness, trust, cooperation, and competition in humans (De Dreu, 2012; Kosfeld, Heinrichs, Zak, Fischbacher, & Fehr, 2005; Radke & De Bruijn, 2012; Zak, Stanton, & Ahmadi, 2007).”
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    • cites De Dreu, 2012 source

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    • cites Kosfeld, Heinrichs, Zak, Fischbacher, & Fehr, 2005

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    • cites Radke & De Bruijn, 2012 source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Treatment with Pro8-OXT, but not the consensus mammalian ligand (Leu8-OXT), reduced both sociosexual behaviour and prosocial food sharing toward opposite-sex strangers.

    “For instance, treatment with Pro8-OXT, but not the consensus mammalian ligand (Leu8-OXT), reduced both sociosexual behaviour and prosocial food sharing toward opposite-sex strangers (Cavanaugh et al., 2014; Mustoe et al., 2015).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Cavanaugh et al., 2014 source

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    • cites Mustoe et al., 2015 source

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    Premisecitation

    OXT modulates pair-bonding between opposite-sex partners.

    “OXT modulates pair-bonding between opposite-sex partners (Cavanaugh, Mustoe, Taylor, & French, 2014; Smith, Agmo, Birnie, & French, 2010; Young & Wang, 2004)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Cavanaugh, Mustoe, Taylor, & French, 2014 source

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    • cites Smith, Agmo, Birnie, & French, 2010 source

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    • cites Young & Wang, 2004

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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisereasoning

    The degree to which OXT regulates more complex sociocognitive decision-making processes, such as inequity aversion, has yet to be examined.

    “However, the degree to which OXT regulates more complex sociocognitive decision-making processes, such as inequity aversion, has yet to be examined.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

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    Premisecitation

    OXT enhances social attractiveness.

    “social attractiveness (Cavanaugh, Huffman, Harnisch, & French, 2015)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Cavanaugh, Huffman, Harnisch, & French, 2015 source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    These findings highlight how OXT shapes the maintenance of cooperative social relationships (male-female pair bonds; parental-offspring bonds) in marmosets by reducing interest in opposite-sex strangers and enhancing interest toward infant stimuli.

    “These findings highlight how OXT shapes the maintenance of cooperative social relationships (male-female pair bonds; parental-offspring bonds) in marmosets by reducing interest in opposite-sex strangers and enhancing interest toward infant stimuli, two characteristics that may preserve biparental cooperative relationships.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Basal OXT levels are synchronized with levels of affiliative behaviour.

    “and basal OXT levels are synchronized with levels of affiliative behaviour (Finkenwirth, van Schaik, Ziegler, & Burkart, 2015).”
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    • cites Finkenwirth, van Schaik, Ziegler, & Burkart, 2015

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    OXT enhances responsiveness to infant stimuli in male marmosets.

    “Additionally, OXT enhances responsiveness to infant stimuli in male marmosets (Saito & Nakamura, 2011; Taylor & French, 2015)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Saito & Nakamura, 2011

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    • cites Taylor & French, 2015

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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Tray pulling was scored in real time by experimenters blind to treatment conditions.

    “Tray pulling was scored in real time by experimenters blind to treatment conditions.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The expression of inequity aversion in marmosets depends on the magnitude and type of inequity and the level of familiarity between partners.

    “The expression of inequity aversion in marmosets depends on the magnitude and type of inequity and the level of familiarity between partners.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    These findings suggest that marmosets are both inequity tolerant (prosocial) and inequity averse depending on the type of inequity and the social context including familiarity and sex of the social partner.

    “These findings suggest that marmosets are both inequity tolerant (prosocial) and inequity averse depending on the type of inequity and the social context including familiarity and sex of the social partner.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    Males are much more likely to display affiliative behaviour and consequently form strong social bonds within the natal group.

    “Males, on the other hand, are much more likely to display affiliative behaviour and consequently form strong social bonds within the natal group.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Consequently, females rely on more competitive strategies while males rely on more cooperative strategies.

    “Consequently, females rely on more competitive strategies while males rely on more cooperative strategies (Díaz-Muñoz et al., 2014; Yamamoto et al., 2014).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Díaz-Muñoz et al., 2014

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    • cites Yamamoto et al., 2014 source

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    Study design and conductnone given

    Marmosets were trained to reach a minimum criterion of at least 10 correct tray pulls to reward themselves out of every 12 trials.

    “Prior to start the testing procedures, marmosets, including those used in a previous prosocial tray pulling study, were trained to reach a minimum criterion of at least 10 correct tray pulls to reward themselves out of every 12 trials.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Subordinate females within a family rarely become breeders, and disperse with much higher frequency than males, leading females to exhibit more aggression and less affiliative behaviour.

    “Specifically, subordinate females within a family rarely become breeders, and disperse with much higher frequency than males, leading females to exhibit more aggression and less affiliative behaviour.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    All animals were habituated to catching and handling procedures prior to the study to account for potential handling effects.

    “To account for potential handling effects (e.g., anxiety and/or arousal) associated with the intranasal administration procedure, all animals were habituated to catching and handling procedures prior to the study.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The order of OXT treatments and presence of partners was counterbalanced across the study.

    “The order of OXT treatments and presence of partners was counterbalanced across the study.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Infant care experience enhanced prosociality in males but not females.

    “Furthermore, marmoset families with more male helpers are more prosocial than marmoset families with more female helpers, and infant care experience enhanced prosociality in males but not females (Burkart, 2015).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Burkart, 2015 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted).

    Interpretationreasoning

    If inequity aversion were a behavioural strategy to maintain cooperative relationships in marmosets, we would expect that males would be more inequity averse than females given male marmosets' stronger propensity to maintain cooperative relationships.

    “Thus, if inequity aversion were a behavioural strategy to maintain cooperative relationships in marmosets, we would expect that males would be more inequity averse than females given male marmosets’ stronger propensity to maintain cooperative relationships.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    Preferences were confirmed based on choosing options at least 15 out of 20 trials.

    “Preferences were confirmed based on choosing options at least 15 out of 20 trials.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    These responses to inequity also varied based on the relationship with the partner and the sex of the donor marmoset.

    “These responses to inequity also varied based on the relationship with the partner and the sex of the donor marmoset.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Animals in all conditions underwent the same removal from homecage, handling, and intranasal procedures.

    “Animals in all conditions underwent the same removal from homecage, handling, and intranasal procedures.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The small sample size, pair-living, and lack of parental experience in this study limit the generalizability of the findings to other primate studies.

    “Like many NHP and OXT studies, the sample size was small, the marmosets in this study lived in pairs instead of family groups, and the marmosets had no parental experience. These differences limit the generalizability across other primate studies examining prosociality and cooperation”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    In captive marmosets, there is a clear willingness or tolerance to reward others in a low-cost task without the expectation to receive an immediate reward for themselves.

    “In captive marmosets, there is a clear willingness or tolerance to reward others in a low-cost task without the expectation to receive an immediate reward for themselves (Burkart et al., 2007; Mustoe et al., 2015)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Burkart et al., 2007 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Mustoe et al., 2015 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • Rests on an assumption: Less is known about when marmosets are unwilling to behave prosocially.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Comparisons of prosociality across experiments are hindered by differing methodologies and measures.

    “it is widely viewed and accepted that comparisons of prosociality across experiments are hindered by differing methodologies and measures (Cronin, 2012; Tan, Kwetuenda, & Hare, 2015).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Cronin, 2012 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Tan, Kwetuenda, & Hare, 2015

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The variability in the type of effort and exchange can influence the presence of inequity aversion.

    “The variability in the type of effort and exchange, such as tray pulling in the presence of real food rewards compared token exchanges (and the corresponding ecological validity), can each influence the presence of inequity aversion (Brosnan & de Waal, 2014).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Brosnan & de Waal, 2014

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationnone given

    These social decisions following inequity reflect an emergent property of multiple social behaviours.

    “it is likely that these social decisions following inequity reflect an emergent property of multiple social behaviours.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Inequity aversion and tolerance are important social features for marmoset pairmates.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Capuchins show sensitivity to the magnitude of the inequity, where prosociality decreases as the discrepancies in the rewards increases.

    “capuchins show sensitivity to the magnitude of the inequity, where prosociality decreases as the discrepancies in the rewards increases (Brosnan, Houser, et al., 2010).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Brosnan, Houser, et al., 2010

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Primate species that engage in biparental and alloparental cooperation develop specific biological and social mechanisms that lead to prosocial phenotypes.

    “Taken together, these studies show that primate species that engage in biparental and alloparental cooperation develop specific biological and social mechanisms that lead to prosocial phenotypes.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Burkart et al., 2014 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Freeman et al., 2013 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Prosocial responses occur through multiple processes both within and across species, some of which may be modified by OXT while others may not (this study).

    “Ultimately, prosocial responses occur through multiple processes both within and across species, some of which may be modified by OXT (Brosnan, Talbot, et al., 2015; Chang et al., 2012; Mustoe et al., 2015) while others may not (this study).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Brosnan, Talbot, et al., 2015

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Chang et al., 2012 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Mustoe et al., 2015 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • Rests on an assumption: Marmosets exhibit a highly flexible behavioural repertoire for the formation and maintenance of long-term pairbonds and biparental cooperation, and these specific social behaviours are highly amendable to OXT treatments.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Responses to inequity vary considerably across New World monkeys both in high and low cost/effort situations.

    “responses to inequity vary considerably across New World monkeys both in high and low cost/effort situations (Freeman et al., 2013; Katherine McAuliffe et al., 2015; Katherine McAuliffe, Shelton, & Stone, 2014b; Neiworth et al., 2009; Sheskin, Ashayeri, Skerry, & Santos, 2014).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Freeman et al., 2013 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Katherine McAuliffe et al., 2015

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Katherine McAuliffe, Shelton, & Stone, 2014b

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The relative importance of these social factors can considerably vary from species to species.

    “the relative importance of these social factors can considerably vary from species to species.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The enhancement of prosociality by OXT is not universal; OXT reduces sensitivity to fairness based on perspective-taking and generosity, and reduces conformity to 'social norms'.

    “the enhancement of prosociality by OXT is not universal, as other work has shown that OXT reduces sensitivity to fairness based on perspective-taking and generosity, and more generally, OXT reduces conformity to ‘social norms’ (Radke & De Bruijn, 2012).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Radke & De Bruijn, 2012 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Prosocial behaviour can vary across multiple domains and should be viewed as contextual rather than as simply present or absent.

    “Prosocial behaviour can vary across multiple domains and should be viewed as contextual rather than as simply present or absent.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The relationship between OXT and prosociality is highly sensitive to social context, especially with regard to the relationship quality between social partners.

    “These studies in humans strongly reinforce the view that the relationship between OXT and prosociality is highly sensitive to social context, especially with regard to the relationship quality between social partners (De Dreu, 2012; Everett, Faber, Crockett, & De Dreu, 2015).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites De Dreu, 2012 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Everett, Faber, Crockett, & De Dreu, 2015

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Studies on humans have established a link between OXT treatment and an increased willingness to cooperate, to act generously, and an increased expectation that others cooperate.

    “Studies on humans have established a link between OXT treatment and an increased willingness to cooperate, to act generously, and an increased expectation that others cooperate (Barraza, McCullough, Ahmadi, & Zak, 2011; Israel, Weisel, Ebstein, & Bornstein, 2012; Zak et al., 2007).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Barraza, McCullough, Ahmadi, & Zak, 2011

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Israel, Weisel, Ebstein, & Bornstein, 2012 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Zak et al., 2007 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Other important social factors including personality and social rank can influence whether individuals respond prosocially.

    “other important social factors including personality and social rank can influence whether individuals respond prosocially (Brosnan, Hopper, et al., 2015; Price & Brosnan, 2012)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Brosnan, Hopper, et al., 2015

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Price & Brosnan, 2012

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Capuchins were inequity averse based on a social comparison and not a 'frustration' effect of not being able to receive the better reward.

    “this preference occurred only when a partner was present, thus showing these capuchins were inequity averse based on a social comparison and not a ‘frustration’ effect of not being able to receive the better reward (i.e., individual contrast).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Fletcher, 2008 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Tasks that require greater attentional demand toward others can inhibit prosocial responses.

    “tasks that require greater attentional demand toward others can inhibit prosocial responses (Burkart et al., 2013).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Burkart et al., 2013 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The overarching link among studies of OXT and human cooperation is the role of OXT in enhancing group-level cooperation, though there is considerable debate about the robustness of these OXT studies.

    “The overarching link among studies of OXT and human cooperation is the role of OXT in enhancing group-level cooperation, though there is considerable debate about the robustness of these OXT studies (Leng & Ludwig, 2015; Nave, Camerer, & McCullough, 2015; Van IJzendoorn & Bakermans-Kranenburg, 2012; Walum, Waldman, & Young, 2015).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Leng & Ludwig, 2015 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Nave, Camerer, & McCullough, 2015 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Van IJzendoorn & Bakermans-Kranenburg, 2012

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    While callitrichids may be predisposed to behave prosocially, the social context of these behavioural strategies, and the importance of food sharing within the family may be different with and without the presence of offspring.

    “Thus while callitrichids may be predisposed to behave prosocially, the social context of these behavioural strategies, and the importance of food sharing within the family may be different with and without the presence of offspring.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Marmosets, owl monkeys, and squirrel monkeys were found to be inequity tolerant, yet there were subtle species and sex differences that support the view that social structures based on pair-bonding and biparental care lead to inequity tolerance in primates.

    “in another study that examined the importance of cooperative-breeding and biparental cooperation on inequity aversion, marmosets, owl monkeys, and squirrel monkeys were found to be inequity tolerant, yet there were subtle species and sex differences that support the view that social structures based on pair-bonding and biparental care lead to inequity tolerance in primates (Freeman et al., 2013).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Freeman et al., 2013 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    In a comparative study, the extent to which a primate species exhibited alloparental care was the strongest predictor of 'proactive prosociality'.

    “in a comparative study that examined levels of prosociality across many group-living primates using a standardized experimental procedure (‘group-service paradigm’), the extent to which a primate species exhibited alloparental care was the strongest predictor of ‘proactive prosociality’ (Burkart et al., 2014).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Burkart et al., 2014 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The patterns of prosocial preferences among primates vary considerably both across species and within species.

    “The patterns of prosocial preferences among primates vary considerably both across species and within species (Brosnan, 2011; Brosnan and de Waal, 2014; Cronin, 2012; McAuliffe and Thornton, 2015).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Brosnan, 2011 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Brosnan and de Waal, 2014

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Cronin, 2012 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The key social distinction that may account for the differences in prosociality and inequity aversion strategies in marmosets in the current study and Mustoe et al., 2015, compared to others, is that our marmosets lived in exclusive male-female pairs with no offspring while other studies have investigated marmosets that live in larger family groups.

    “Overall, the key social distinction that may account for the differences in prosociality and inequity aversion strategies in marmosets in the current study and Mustoe et al., 2015, compared to others (Burkart et al., 2007; Freeman et al., 2013), is that our marmosets lived in exclusive male-female pairs with no offspring while other studies have investigated marmosets that live in larger family”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Mustoe et al., 2015 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Burkart et al., 2007 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Freeman et al., 2013 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • Rests on an assumption: The properties of cooperative social interactions vary greatly depending on whether partners are maintaining or forming/avoiding new cooperative relationships.
70 of 70

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The study had sufficient statistical power to detect effects of OXT on inequity aversion.

    “Because of the small repeated-measures sample size, the relatively high number of independent variables, and the measurement of tray pulling, the data were normalized for ANOVA analyses using a square root transformation.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The tested marmosets are representative of marmosets (Callithrix spp.) more generally.

    “We tested 8 individual marmosets (C. penicillata: three adult males and two adult females; C. jacchus: one adult male and two adult females).”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Inequity aversion appears to emerge alongside cooperative relationships.

    “inequity aversion appears to emerge alongside cooperative relationships”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The properties of cooperative social interactions vary greatly depending on whether partners are maintaining or forming/avoiding new cooperative relationships.

    “the properties of cooperative social interactions vary greatly depending on whether partners are maintaining (related or long-term mates) or forming/avoiding new cooperative relationships (novel or unfamiliar social partners).”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Inequity aversion and tolerance are important social features for marmoset pairmates.

    “Inequity aversion and tolerance are important social features for marmoset pairmates”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Marmosets exhibit a highly flexible behavioural repertoire for the formation and maintenance of long-term pairbonds and biparental cooperation, and these specific social behaviours are highly amendable to OXT treatments.

    “Marmosets exhibit a highly flexible behavioural repertoire for the formation and maintenance of long-term pairbonds and biparental cooperation, and these specific social behaviours are highly amendable to OXT treatments.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Less is known about when marmosets are unwilling to behave prosocially.

    “but less is known about when marmosets are unwilling to behave prosocially.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Our study was the first to directly assess the role of OXT and relationship type on inequity aversion.

    “Our study was the first to directly assess the role of OXT and relationship type on inequity aversion”
8 of 8

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • Studies examining the effects of neuropeptides on social behavior in NWM repeatedly demonstrate that neuropeptides do not universally enhance sociality and, in some cases, neuropeptides like OT have no significant influence on socially-relevant behavior.

    “neuropeptides do not universally enhancing sociality and, in some cases, neuropeptides like OT have no significant influence on socially-relevant behavior (Mustoe et al., 2016).”

    From Neuropeptide diversity and the regulation of social behavior in New World primates (2016) · cites this paper as Mustoe et al., 2016

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Discussion calls every inequity comparison socially specific

    Minor

    The discussion says the effects were socially specific in all inequity comparisons, whereas the results explicitly say inequity aversion in the qualitative-inequity-versus-selfish comparison was not socially specific.

  • The listed qualitative-inequity rewards do not match their definition

    Minor

    The methods define qualitative inequity as the recipient receiving marshmallow while the donor receives cheerio. The later listed qualitative-inequity conditions instead give the donor no reward, making them inconsistent with that definition.

2 of 2

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 1

  1. Hopper, 2013, The ontogeny of social comparisons by rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta), Journal of Primatology, 2, 2

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Mustoe, A. C., Harnisch, A. M., Hochfelder, B., Cavanaugh, J., & French, J. A.
Affiliations
University of Nebraska at Omaha (US)
Corresponding author
Mustoe, Aaryn C.
ORCID
Venue
Animal Behaviour
Publisher
Elsevier BV
Published
2016-04
Volume
114
Pages
69-79
ISSN
0003-3472 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1016/j.anbehav.2016.01.025
PMC
PMC4802974
OpenAlex
W2288020252
Semantic Scholar
3156b176f4225c310b2d3b155636b3e9dd98dc15
Cited by
40
References
89
Citations by year
2026: 2 · 2025: 2 · 2024: 14 · 2023: 1 · 2022: 4 · 2021: 1 · 2020: 1 · 2019: 4 · 2018: 7 · 2017: 2 · 2016: 2
FWCI
7.86
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
Locations
  • Animal Behaviour (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
Funders
  • National Institutes of Health (R01-HD042882)
  • University of Nebraska Omaha Graduate Research
  • Creative Activity Award
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Primate Behavior and Ecology
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Neuroendocrine regulation and behavior
  • Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Ecology, Evolution, Behavior and Systematics › Animal Behavior and Reproduction
Keywords
inequity aversion, marmoset, Callithrix, oxytocin, partner familiarity, sex differences, prosocial behavior, cooperative breeding, fairness, collaborative relationships, oxytocin antagonist

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-09.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-09.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

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